Communism, Decolonization, and New States (1900s)

Spread of Communism After 1900

  • Land reform and communism's rise occurred within the Cold War context in countries with unequal land distribution.

Communism in China

  • Communists, led by Mao Zedong, gained power by redistributing land, improving social services, and reducing corruption.

  • In 1949, Mao established the People's Republic of China, nationalizing industries and initiating Soviet-style five-year plans focused on heavy industry.

  • The Great Leap Forward (1958) organized peasants into communes, leading to famine and approximately 20 million deaths.

  • The Cultural Revolution (1966) aimed to reinforce communism but resulted in purges and silencing of critics.

  • China and the Soviet Union had a strained relationship, competing for global influence.

Turmoil in Iran

  • Foreign powers, especially Britain and Russia, dominated Iran in the late 19th and early 20th centuries due to oil interests.

  • The U.S. and Britain orchestrated the overthrow of Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh in 1953 after he nationalized oil companies, reinstating the Shah.

  • The White Revolution under the Shah included land reform, women's rights, and literacy programs, but faced opposition.

  • The Iranian Revolution in 1979 replaced the Shah with an Islamic theocracy led by clerics.

Land Reform in Latin America

  • Land ownership concentration was seen as a barrier to progress, prompting land reform efforts.

  • Venezuela redistributed land starting in 2001, facing opposition from landowners and issues with illegal squatters.

  • In Guatemala, land reform efforts by the democratically elected government of Jacob Arbenz led to his overthrow in 1954.

Land Reform in Asia and Africa

  • In Vietnam, Communists gained support by promising land redistribution.

  • After declaring independence Communists seized power from large landowners and redistributed the land among the peasants.

  • In Ethiopia, Haile Selassie's failure to implement land reforms led to his deposition in 1974.

  • Mengistu Haile Mariam led a socialist government supported by the Soviet Union, marked by famine and rebellion.

  • In India, land reforms aimed to redistribute land, abolish rent collectors' power, protect renters, and promote cooperative farming with mixed results.

Decolonization After 1900

  • Nationalist groups challenged colonial rule through political negotiation and armed struggle.

  • The Cold War and the development of the United Nations accelerated decolonization.

Movements for Autonomy: India and Pakistan

  • The Indian National Congress and the Muslim League pushed for independence from British rule.

  • Growing Indian fighting abilities and Britain's sluggish postwar recovery led to negotiations for independence.

  • India and Pakistan gained independence in 1947, with the partition leading to conflict and displacement.

Decolonization in Ghana and Algeria

  • Ghana gained independence in 1957, with Kwame Nkrumah emulating nationalistic traditions and advocating Pan-Africanism.

  • Algeria's war for independence involved violence and sharp divisions, leading to independence in 1962 and subsequent civil war.

Negotiated Independence in French West Africa

  • France negotiated independence with its colonies in French West Africa by 1959.

Nationalism and Division in Vietnam

  • Ho Chi Minh sought to unite Vietnam under a communist government, leading to war with France and later the United States.

  • The Vietnam War resulted in significant casualties and destabilized Southeast Asia.

Struggles and Compromise in Egypt

  • Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew the king and established the Republic of Egypt, promoting Pan-Arabism.

  • Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956, leading to the Suez Crisis and intervention by the United Nations.

Independence and Civil War in Nigeria

  • Nigeria gained independence from Britain in 1960, followed by the Biafran Civil War due to tribal tensions.

Canada and the "Silent Revolution" in Quebec

  • The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s in Quebec led to desires for separation from Canada.

Newly Independent States

  • Between 1945 and 2000, the number of independent states more than doubled, often leading to conflicts, population displacement, and resettlement.

Israel's Founding and Its Relationships with Neighbors

  • The Zionist movement led to the establishment of Israel in 1948, leading to immediate conflict with Palestinians and neighboring Arab countries.

  • Multiple wars followed, including the Six-Day War in 1967 and the Yom Kippur War in 1973.

  • The Camp David Accords in 1979 brought peace between Israel and Egypt, but violence continues in the 21st century.

Cambodia Gains Independence and Survives Wars

  • Cambodia gained independence in 1953 but was drawn into the Vietnam War.

  • The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, imposed a ruthless form of communism, leading to mass killings and famine.

  • Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia in 1977, helping the country regain stability.

India and Pakistan Become Separate Countries

  • In 1947, British India was divided into India and Pakistan, leading to violence and displacement.

  • Tensions persist over Kashmir, a border region claimed by both countries.

Women Gain Power in South Asia

  • Women became heads of state in some newly emerging countries, often replacing their fathers or husbands.

  • Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the world's first female prime minister in Sri Lanka in 1960.

  • Indira Gandhi became India's leader in 1966, implementing economic reforms and leading India through war with Pakistan.

  • Benazir Bhutto became Pakistan's prime minister in 1988, struggling to improve the economy and reduce poverty.

Tanzania Modernizes

  • Julius Nyerere instituted African socialist policies in Tanzania, focusing on cooperative agriculture and economic independence.

Emigration from Newer Countries to Older Ones

  • People from newly independent countries often moved to former colonial powers, maintaining economic and cultural ties.