Comprehensive Study Guide: False Confessions, Deception Detection, and Malingering

Taxonomic Classification and Psychology of False Confessions

• Voluntary False Confessions

  • Defined as confessions given freely to police without any external pressure or interrogation from law enforcement.
  • Motivations: Occur when individuals seek attention, notoriety, protection of the actual perpetrator, or are driven by severe psychological delusions.
  • Historical and Forensic Examples:
  • In $2006$, Jean Marc Carr volunteered a detailed false confession to the unsolved murder of JonBenét Ramsey (referred to in legal discussions as Jean Bonnet Ramsey).
  • During the $1980\text{s}$, Henry Lee Lucas falsely confessed to hundreds of unsolved homicides, establishing him as the most prolific serial false confessor in recorded history.
  • Following the kidnapping and murder of the Charles Lindbergh (Lindenburg) baby, an estimated $200$ individuals voluntarily submitted fabricated confessions despite having zero involvement in the crime.

• Coerced-Internalized False Confessions

  • Defined as situations where innocent suspects are subjected to persuasive, coercive interrogations and develop such a profound distrust of their own memory that they come to genuinely believe they committed the crime.
  • Psychological Mechanism: External pressure combined with false evidence leads the suspect to internalize guilt and generate confabulated mental memories detailing how the offense occurred.
  • Key Characteristics: Suspects do not merely admit guilt to escape the room; they become psychologically convinced of their own culpability.

• Coerced-Compliant False Confessions

  • Defined as confessions where an innocent suspect caves to intense interrogation demands despite maintaining self-perceived and actual innocence.
  • Primary Motivations: To escape an intolerable, stressful interrogation environment, avoid threats of severe punishment, or obtain an explicit or implied promise of leniency/reward.
  • Key Characteristics: The suspect retains internal knowledge of innocence but publicly complies with the interrogator's demands to alleviate immediate distress.

• Retracted and Disputed Confessions

  • Retracted Confession: Occurs when an individual explicitly declares that a previously made confession is false, regardless of whether the original statement was true or fake.
  • Disputed Confession: Occurs when the validity or existence of a confession is challenged at trial, often due to legal technicalities, alleged rights violations, or claims by the suspect that the confession was never uttered.

• Frequency and Measurement Complexity

  • Exact baseline rates of false confessions remain difficult to quantify because proving a confession is false requires objective external proof (such as DNA evidence).
  • Coercive interrogation does not automatically mean a confession is false, nor does a court conviction guarantee that a confession is true.
  • Analysis of $241$ proven DNA exonerations revealed that false confessions were a contributing factor in approximately $24\%$ of wrongful conviction cases.

High-Profile Case Studies in False Confessions

• The Central Park Jogger Case ($1989$)

  • Five juvenile suspects were subjected to lengthy, aggressive interrogations, culminating in false confessions (four recorded on videotape).
  • Parents were present in the building or room during portions of the questioning, yet failed to prevent the coercion.
  • All five suspects immediately retracted their statements, but were convicted at trial. They were fully exonerated $13$ years later via DNA evidence identifying the sole actual perpetrator.

• The Case of Michael Crowe ($1998$)

  • Fourteen-year-old Michael Crowe was interrogated following the murder of his sister, Stephanie Crowe, who was stabbed to death in her bed.
  • Police confronted Michael with fabricated evidence, leading him to doubt his memory and internalize guilt, ultimately confessing under coerced-internalized conditions.
  • Michael was later exonerated when independent DNA testing identified the actual killer, who had Stephanie's blood on his clothing.

• The Case of Billy Wayne Cope ($2001$)

  • In November $2001$, twelve-year-old Amanda Cope was found strangled and sexually assaulted in Rock Hill, South Carolina.
  • Law enforcement focused exclusively on her father, Billy Wayne Cope, due to the lack of forced entry and their perception that he appeared unemotional.
  • Exhausted and deeply religious, Cope requested a polygraph test to demonstrate innocence. Interrogators lied, claiming he failed the test, and asserted he could have committed the act and repressed the memory.
  • Over several days, Cope produced four drastically conflicting confessions (initially claiming an accidental strangulation during a bad dream, then adopting details fed by police).
  • Cope secretly believed that physical evidence checks would instantly clear him once evaluated.
  • Nine months later, DNA analysis identified the sole perpetrator as James Sanders, a career burglar and serial rapist who had broken into a neighboring home on the same night.
  • Rather than dropping charges, prosecutors altered their theory, claiming Cope conspired with Sanders to let him into the home. No physical evidence, text logs, or witnesses linked the two men, and Sanders made no initial mention of Cope.
  • The trial judge excluded evidence of Sanders's extensive criminal pattern of lone nighttime break-ins and sexual assaults.
  • Both men were convicted in $2004$. Despite heavy criticism from false confession scholars (including Saul Kassin) and the Innocence Project, the South Carolina Supreme Court upheld the conviction in a $3\text{--}2$ decision in $2013$. The US Supreme Court declined review in $2014$, and Cope died in prison in $2017$ maintaining his innocence.

• R. v. M.J.S. ($2000$ Alberta Provincial Court)

  • An accused father ($\text{M.J.S.}$) was charged with aggravated assault following severe injuries to his infant son and provided a written confession after lengthy police questioning.
  • A voir dire (a trial within a trial) was conducted to evaluate voluntariness under Canadian common law.
  • The court ruled the confession involuntary and inadmissible based on three specific findings:
  1. Ambiguous language within the statement failed to clearly establish factual guilt.
  2. Police employed improper general pressures, veiled threats, and implied promises, violating the common law quid pro quo principle.
  3. The overall interrogation environment was completely oppressive, destroying the accused's operating mind and free will.

Youth Vulnerability in Interrogations and Developmental Factors

• Statistical Disproportionality in Youth False Confessions

  • Approximately $31\%$ of all proven false confessions are provided by suspects under the age of $18$.
  • Youth represent only $8\%$ of total arrests for murder and $16\%$ of arrests for rape, yet $89\%$ of proven juvenile false confessions involve murder or rape charges.
  • In DNA exoneration databases, while only $8\%$ of innocent adults falsely confessed, $42\%$ of innocent juveniles falsely confessed.

• Neurodevelopmental Limitations in Adolescence

  • Key neurological structures remain underdeveloped until the early-to-mid twenties ($20\text{s}$):
  • Limbic System: Controls emotional regulation, emotional arousability, and stress reactivity.
  • Prefrontal Cortex: Responsible for executive functioning, rational decision-making, impulse control, and evaluating long-term consequences versus immediate rewards.
  • Adolescents exhibit heightened suggestibility, social compliance toward authority figures, and a temporal orientation focused heavily on short-term relief rather than long-term legal consequences.

• Police Tactics Applied to Juveniles

  • In the United States, law enforcement officers are legally permitted to interrogate juveniles using the exact same aggressive strategies designed for adults, including deliberate deception (lying about non-existent fingerprints, DNA, or accomplice betrayal).
  • Maximization Strategies ("Bad Cop"): Accusatory techniques designed to make denials appear hopeless, including severe threats (e.g., adult prison terms, violence in jail).
  • Minimization Strategies ("Good Cop"): Themes offering sympathy, moral justification, and implicit promises of leniency (e.g., claiming "honesty will set you free").
  • Systemic Pervasiveness: Over $97\%$ of criminal cases in the US are resolved via plea bargains rather than trials, hiding many juvenile false confessions from appellate review.

• Empirical Findings on Incarcerated Juveniles and Experimental Mock Trials

  • Interviews with incarcerated teens ($14\text{--}17$ years old) revealed that $17\%$ made at least one false confession to police.
  • Over $80\%$ reported facing severe police threats (including being tried as an adult or facing physical violence), and over $70\%$ experienced minimization/befriending tactics.
  • Only $7\%$ of incarcerated juveniles had a parent or attorney present during questioning.
  • Over $90\%$ of juveniles routinely waive their Miranda rights without consulting an adult.
  • FIU Academic Dishonesty Experiment: In a controlled laboratory study falsely accusing teens and adults of cheating on an academic task, $59\%$ of innocent teenagers signed a false confession taking responsibility. Only $4\%$ ($3$ out of $74$) requested to speak to a parent who was sitting in the adjacent room.

• Case Study: Brendan Dassey ($2006$)

  • Sixteen-year-old Brendan Dassey possessed an IQ of approximately $70$, placing him in the intellectually disabled range.
  • During a four-hour interrogation, officers repeatedly lied, utilized minimization tactics ("we're in your corner"), and implied leniency.
  • Dassey provided an inconsistent confession lacking physical corroboration. When speaking to his mother afterward, he explained his confession by stating: "They got into my head."
  • Convicted in $2007$ of murder and sexual assault; his conviction was overturned nearly a decade later by a federal magistrate highlighting the coercive absence of a parent or attorney.

Laboratory Paradigms for Studying False Confessions

• Ethical Constraints in Empirical Research

  • Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) strictly prohibit deceptive experiments that convince participants they have committed serious criminal offenses due to psychological harm.

• The Kassin and Kiechel Alt-Key Paradigm ($1996$)

  • Designed to empirically evaluate false confessions in a controlled setting without ethical violations.
  • Procedure: Participants complete a computer typing task at high or low speeds and are explicitly instructed never to hit the "Alt" key, as doing so will crash the system and erase data.
  • Manipulation: The computer is pre-programmed to crash automatically mid-task. The experimenter accuses the innocent participant of striking the forbidden key.
  • Independent Variables: Pace of task (high vs. low cognitive load) and presence of a false witness (a confederate claiming they saw the participant press the key).
  • Key Findings:
  • High rates of compliance (signing a written confession).
  • Significant rates of internalization (genuinely believing they hit the key).
  • Suspects exhibited confabulation (inventing specific fabricated memory details, such as "I hit the key with the side of my hand").
  • Introduction of a false witness drastically increased both internalization and confabulation rates.

• Methodological Criticisms and Ecological Validity Limits

  • Absence of Criminal Consequences: Lab participants risk no formal legal penalties, severe imprisonment, or criminal record, unlike real-world suspects.
  • Universal Innocence: The model evaluates only innocent participants, whereas police interrogations deal with a mixed base rate of guilty and innocent suspects.
  • Distinction Between Keystrokes and Crimes: An accidental keystroke is easy to misremember or doubt; actual criminal suspects are rarely uncertain about whether they committed a violent offense.

Legal Safeguards, Judicial Precedents, and Reform Recommendations

• The Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) of $1986$ (UK)

  • Promulgated following the exoneration of the Guildford Four (Paul Hill, Gerard "Gerry" Conlon, Carole Richardson, and Paddy Armstrong), who served $15$ years in prison after providing false confessions under police coercion and evidence fabrication regarding the $1974$ IRA pub bombings.
  • Statutory Mandates under PACE:
  1. Expressly illegal for law enforcement to lie, deceive, or trick suspects about evidence.
  2. Mandatory audio/video recording of all suspect interrogations conducted at police stations.
  3. Explicit prohibition of intimidation, bullying, or threats.
  4. Mandatory requirement for an "Appropriate Adult" (parent, guardian, social worker, or advocate) to be present during interrogations of juveniles or vulnerable adults.

• The Canadian Voluntariness Framework: R. v. Oickle ($2000$ SCC)

  • Landmark Supreme Court of Canada decision modernizing the common law confession rule regarding Richard Oickle, a volunteer firefighter who confessed to arson after being falsely told he failed a polygraph.
  • Establishes that a statement made to a person in authority is inadmissible unless the Crown proves its voluntariness beyond a reasonable doubt.
  • Four Core Legal Criteria Evaluated by Courts:
  1. Threats or Promises: Assessment of explicit or implicit quid pro quo inducements offered by police.
  2. Oppression: Examination of interrogation conditions (e.g., prolonged deprivation of food, water, sleep, medical care, or aggressive tactics that overpower free will).
  3. Operating Mind: Ensuring the suspect possessed the cognitive capacity to understand what they were saying and recognize that statements could be used in legal proceedings.
  4. Police Trickery: Evaluating whether deceptive police tactics shock the conscience of the community.

• Kassin's Seven Core Empirical Recommendations for Prevention

  1. Mandate the universal video recording of all suspect interrogations in their entirety from a neutral, objective camera angle.
  2. Require law enforcement to establish evidence-based suspicion prior to initiating confrontational questioning.
  3. Impose strict time limits on detention and prohibit confrontational tactics (specifically false evidence presentation and leniency minimization themes).
  4. Adopt evidence-based, non-confrontational investigative interviewing standards (e.g., the PEACE model).
  5. Guarantee mandatory defense counsel presence for juveniles and vulnerable adults during questioning.
  6. Shield lay eyewitnesses and forensic scientists from confession evidence to eliminate confirmation bias.
  7. Abolish statutory contributory fault clauses that deny compensation to exonerated individuals who originally confessed under coercion.

Nonverbal, Vocal, and Microexpression Cues in Deception Detection

• Empirical Baseline of Human Lie Detection

  • A meta-analysis encompassing nearly $25,000$ observers across hundreds of scientific studies established that human accuracy in detecting deception through simple observation is approximately $54\%$, performing marginally above chance ($50\%$).

• Systemic Cognitive Biases

  • Truth Bias: The default cognitive tendency of laypeople to judge incoming communication as truthful.
  • Lie Bias (Investigator Bias): The pronounced tendency among law enforcement personnel to evaluate statements as deceptive, driven by guilt-presumptive training.
  • Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in a manner that confirms pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

• Empirical Reliability of Vocal, Verbal, and Nonverbal Cues

  • Reliable Vocal Cues to Deception: Pitch elevation (liars reliably speak in a higher-pitched voice), increased speech disturbances (e.g., "ah", "um", pauses), and a slower overall rate of speech.
  • Unreliable Cues (Falsely Relied Upon by Police): Gaze aversion (looking away) and postural fidgeting show no scientific correlation with lying.
  • Reliable Verbal Cues of Honesty: Spontaneous self-corrections and unprompted admissions of memory lapses.
  • Reliable Verbal Cues of Dishonesty: Providing fewer details, lower structural narrative coherence, presence of internal discrepancies, lower cooperative behavior, and heightened anxiety.

• Paul Ekman's Microexpression Theory

  • Microexpressions: Involuntary, fleeting facial muscle movements lasting a fraction of a second ($\frac{1}{25}$ to $\frac{1}{5}$ of a second) that reveal true underlying emotions when a person attempts to consciously suppress them.
  • Core Microexpression Configurations:
  • Sadness: Inner corners of eyebrows raised, corners of the mouth turned down.
  • Anger: Eyebrows lowered and pulled together, eyes narrowed, lips tightly pressed.
  • Fear: Eyebrows raised and pulled together, upper eyelids raised, eyes wide.
  • Surprise: Eyebrows arched, eyes widened, jaw dropped/mouth slightly open.
  • Disgust: Nose wrinkled, upper lip raised.
  • Contempt: Unilateral muscle contraction pulling up one mouth corner (smirk).

Physiological and Polygraph Techniques for Lie Detection

• Behavior Analysis Interview (BAI)

  • A pre-interrogation screening tool consisting of structured non-threatening and behavior-provoking questions intended to elicit differential nonverbal behaviors from guilty versus innocent suspects.

• Polygraph Testing Principles

  • Polygraphs do not detect lies directly; they record autonomic nervous system arousal (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, galvanic skin response/sweating).

• Comparison Question Test (CQT)

  • Consists of three distinct question categories:
  1. Neutral Questions: Identity and baseline items (e.g., "Is your name Anthony?").
  2. Relevant Questions: Direct queries regarding the specific crime under investigation (e.g., "Did you assault your neighbor on July 21?").
  3. Probable-Lie Comparison Questions: Broad queries about past misdeeds prior to a certain age designed to induce emotional arousal in all takers (e.g., "Prior to age 21, did you ever steal or lie?").
  • Theoretical Assumption: Innocent individuals will show larger physiological reactions to comparison questions (due to fear of lying about past misdeeds), whereas guilty individuals will show larger reactions to relevant crime questions.
  • Diagnostic Flaws: Vulnerable to false positives (innocent suspects experiencing severe fear/arousal during relevant questions) and false negatives (psychopathic or habituated offenders demonstrating minimal arousal).

• Concealed Information Test (CIT) / Guilty Knowledge Test

  • Evaluates whether a suspect possesses underlying recognition memory regarding crime scene details that only the true perpetrator would know.
  • Format: Multiple-choice queries containing one critical option (actual crime detail) and four plausible control options.
  • Theoretical Assumption: An innocent suspect shows equal physiological responses across options, while a guilty suspect shows a distinct spike in autonomic arousal upon hearing the critical option.
  • Diagnostic Flaws: Highly vulnerable to false negatives (guilty suspects failing to notice or remember specific details), though very effective at minimizing false positives.

Cognitive Load and Advanced Neuroimaging / Emerging Technologies

• Cognitive Load Approach to Lie Detection

  • Grounded in the principle that formulating and maintaining a lie requires significantly greater mental resources (attention, memory manipulation, monitoring behavior) than telling the truth.

• Brain-Based Neuroimaging Lie Detection

  • Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): Scans localized blood flow and oxygen consumption in specific cerebral regions (e.g., prefrontal cortex) associated with memory inhibition and cognitive effort during deception.
  • Event-Related Potentials (ERPs / P300 Wave): Measures brain wave electrophysiological responses to visual/auditory stimuli, exhibiting $75\%\text{--}90\%$ laboratory accuracy and resistance to conscious physical countermeasures.

• Ocular-Motor Systems (EyeDetect)

  • Tracks involuntary ocular behaviors including pupil dilation, blink frequency, fixation patterns, and reading speeds while subjects evaluate computerized statements.
  • Industry developers (Converus) claim $86\%\text{--}88\%$ diagnostic accuracy based on cognitive load metrics; however, independent peer-reviewed replication remains absent.

• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Applications

  • Systems integrate multi-modal data streams (facial electrode micro-movement sensors, acoustic speech patterns, gaze patterns, and linguistic metrics).
  • Machine learning algorithms applied to fMRI data significantly enhance classification precision, though no standalone AI lie detection system currently possesses legal validation for courtroom admissibility.

Deception in Psychiatric Disorders: Conversion, Factitious, and FDIA

• Taxonomic Dimensions of Deceptive Disorders

  • Evaluated along two primary dimensions:
  1. Whether symptom production is intentional/conscious or unintentional/unconscious.
  2. Whether underlying motivation is internal (psychological) or external (tangible reward).

• Conversion Disorder

  • Physical symptoms (e.g., blindness, paralysis, non-epileptic seizures) produced unintentionally and unconsciously due to severe internal emotional distress converting into neurological deficits.

• Factitious Disorder (Munchausen Syndrome)

  • The intentional and conscious fabrication, exaggeration, or self-induction of physical or psychological symptoms driven exclusively by internal motivation (primary gain: assuming the patient role, gaining sympathy, medical validation).

• Factitious Disorder Imposed on Another (FDIA / Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy)

  • A severe form of child or elder abuse wherein a caregiver intentionally fabricates, exaggerates, or actively induces physical illness or injury in a dependent.
  • Caregiver Motivations: Driven by internal emotional needs for attention, praise, and social elevation as a heroic, devoted caregiver.
  • Warning Signs: Caregivers demonstrating expert medical vocabulary, intense preoccupation with medical staff, bizarre composure during painful child procedures, symptoms that manifest exclusively in the caregiver's presence, and histories of underlying Borderline Personality Disorder or trauma.
  • Case Study: Dee Dee and Gypsy Rose Blanchard ($2015$): Dee Dee Blanchard subjected her daughter Gypsy Rose to decades of forced surgeries, medication, feeding tubes, and wheelchair confinement by fabricating leukemia and muscular dystrophy. In $2015$, Gypsy Rose orchestrated Dee Dee's homicide with an accomplice to escape the abuse, highlighting the severe legal complexities regarding victim retaliation and mitigating circumstances during sentencing.

Malingering: Definitions, Explanatory Models, Research Designs, and Assessment Tools

• Definition of Malingering

  • The intentional, conscious production or gross exaggeration of false physical or psychological symptoms driven explicitly by external incentives (secondary gain: evading criminal trial/imprisonment, obtaining disability benefits, securing prescription drugs, or avoiding military service).
  • DSM-5 Classification: Not classified as a mental illness; assigned a V-code marking it as a goal-directed behavior.
  • Defensiveness: The direct polar opposite of malingering; defined as the conscious denial or severe minimization of actual physical or psychological symptoms to project a positive image.

• Three Explanatory Models of Malingering

  1. Pathogenic Model: Hypothesizes that feigning originates from underlying genuine psychopathology, where fake symptoms gradually merge with true mental illness (lacks empirical support).
  2. Criminological Model: Views feigning as an antisocial, oppositional act to subvert the legal system; recommended by DSM-5 when antisocial personality disorder is present or when severe discrepancies exist between self-reports and objective observation (lacks strong empirical backing).
  3. Adaptational Model: Views malingering as a rational, cost-benefit decision made in hostile, high-stakes adversarial environments when no other viable coping alternatives exist (supported by scientific consensus).

• Methodological Research Designs

  • Case Studies: High detail for rare phenomena (e.g., FDIA), but lacks experimental control.
  • Simulation Studies: Compares healthy controls, healthy simulators instructed to feign, clinical controls, and clinical simulators across a four-group matrix. Possesses high experimental rigor but low ecological validity (mild lab stakes).
  • Criterion Group Studies (Known-Groups Design): Compares confirmed real-world malingerers against validated genuine patients. Possesses high real-world generalizability but suffers from difficulties establishing absolute ground-truth criterion groups.

• Psychometric Assessment Methods for Malingering

  • The Floor Effect: Tests designed to be so mathematically elementary that individuals with severe organic brain damage pass easily. Failure indicates the subject is overestimating brain impairment severity ("faking bad").
  • Symptom Validity Testing (SVT): Utilizes forced-choice formats ($50\%$ chance performance). Scoring significantly below chance (e.g., $10\%$) provides mathematical proof that the subject knows the correct answer and is intentionally selecting the wrong option.
  • Rare Symptom Endorsement: Items presenting bizarre or absurd symptom combinations that genuine psychiatric patients almost never experience.
  • Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS): A $172$-item structured clinical interview assessing rare symptoms, absurd claims, and reported-versus-observed discrepancies to classify performance into genuine, probable feigning, or definite feigning.
  • Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-3): Employs specialized validity scales including the $F$ Scale (infrequently endorsed items in general populations) and the $F_p$ Scale (items rarely endorsed even by genuine psychiatric inpatients).

Questions & Discussion

• Class Dialogue on Juvenile Interrogation Reforms

  • Question: What structural vulnerabilities make adolescent suspects prone to false confessions, and what concrete safeguards should be implemented?
  • Consensus Summary: Adolescents suffer from incomplete prefrontal cortex development, heightened compliance toward authority figures, emotional volatility, and an inability to project long-term risks. Recommended safeguards include banning police deception/lying during questioning, enforcing mandatory recording, restricting aggressive confrontation, and mandating the presence of an attorney or child advocate rather than relying solely on parents.

• Class Review Scenarios: Identifying Confession Types

  • Scenario 1: Tony commits vandalism, is caught on security footage, and confesses to interrogators.
  • Classification: Genuine Confession (actual guilt).
  • Scenario 2: Jim confesses to a home invasion during questioning, but later states he fabricated the confession to shield his younger brother who committed the crime.
  • Classification: Retracted Confession.
  • Scenario 3: Larry confesses to sexual assault, but the judge excludes the confession at trial because rights were improperly read.
  • Classification: Disputed Confession.
  • Scenario 4: Sue contacts police to confess to a kidnapping to protect her son, who was the actual perpetrator.
  • Classification: Voluntary False Confession.
  • Scenario 5: Vinny undergoes a grueling three-hour interrogation without food or water and confesses to a murder he knows he did not commit just to end questioning.
  • Classification: Coerced-Compliant False Confession.
  • Scenario 6: Jen is continuously told during interrogations that she abused her son until she comes to genuinely believe the police and confesses, despite the babysitter being the true perpetrator.
  • Classification: Coerced-Internalized False Confession.

• Review Questions & Solutions

  • Question 1: The Billy Wayne Cope case was used as an example of what type of confession?
  • Answer: coerced-internalized false confession.
  • Question 2: Brenda steals a turkey from a store and confesses during questioning. At trial, the confession is excluded because Miranda rights were not properly administered. What term best describes this statement?
  • Answer: Disputed confession.
  • Question 3: Which of the following is NOT measured by a polygraph test?
  • Answer: Microfacial expressions.
  • Question 4: What term refers to the human cognitive bias to evaluate incoming messages as truthful rather than deceptive?
  • Answer: Truth bias.
  • Question 5: A polygraph indicates that Kenra is guilty of murder when in fact she is innocent. This outcome represents a:
  • Answer: False positive.