Popular Nationalism Strengthens the State

A new generation of conservative leaders in France, Italy, and Prussia recognized the potential of nationalism to strengthen the state.
Nationalism, aroused by Napoleonic conquests, was transformed into a political movement aimed at unifying nations.

After the revolutions of 1848, the French sought to establish a republic with a strong executive.
Louis-Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, campaigned for liberal reforms emphasizing religion, property, and family.
Elected as a dark-horse candidate in 1848, Louis-Napoleon received almost 75% of the vote, gaining power to declare war, make laws, and sign treaties.
In 1852, he approved a direct vote to crown himself Emperor Napoleon III (1852-1870).
As emperor, he ruled as an autocrat while supporting nationalism, liberal reforms, and political participation.
Promoted extensive modernization projects in Paris, including:
- Building railroads, ports, and canals to boost trade.
- Opening French markets to international trade.
- Supporting new banks and shipbuilding.
- Backing the construction of the Suez Canal.
Public works projects generated jobs and improved the economy, reinstating universal male suffrage, and enhanced his popularity despite a lack of true political liberty.

Italian Nationalism: Momentum gained throughout the 19th century with key figures and movements.
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872):
- A passionate nationalist who envisioned the unification of Italy.
- Faced obstacles: Austrian control, opposition from conservative leaders, papal disapproval, and cultural divisions (north vs. south).
- Founded Young Italy in 1832; inspired several uprisings as part of the broader Risorgimento (resurgence), though these were largely unsuccessful.
Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861):
- Became Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1852, influential in promoting Italian unification by leveraging support from liberal Italians.

Similar to Italy, Germany sought unification in the mid-1800s led by Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898).
Bismarck began his political career as a conservative but adopted select liberal policies to maximize Prussian power.
With a predominantly German population, Prussia expanded aggressively, influencing its Austrian, French, and Hungarian neighbors through a nationalistic agenda.
The mastermind behind wars that stirred nationalist sentiments, facilitating the formation of a Prussian-dominated Germany.

In multiethnic empires like Austria, nationalism heightened ethnic tensions, with various groups advocating for self-determination.
The revolutions of 1848 highlighted the need for reform within Austria's political and social structures.
Austria-Hungary's Dual Monarchy:
- Following revolutions, Austria established a duality in governance under Francis Joseph in 1867, acknowledging Hungarian autonomy.
- Shared ministers for key policies, yet the arrangement failed to unify diverse ethnic groups, leading to ongoing neglect of non-Hungarian minorities.

Historical context of antisemitism, where Jews faced persecution and were often denied property and professional opportunities.
The French Revolution and subsequent Napoleonic regime extended citizenship rights to Jews, allowing for greater integration in Western Europe.
However, antisemitism persisted, especially alongside rising nationalism.
Significant parties, such as the Christian Social Party, reflected nationalist and antisemitic sentiments in both Germany and Austria, with leaders like Karl Lueger gaining prominence.
The Dreyfus Affair of 1894 exemplified the depth of antisemitism in France, where Captain Alfred Dreyfus was wrongfully convicted of treason due to his Jewish heritage.

The fallout from the Dreyfus affair catalyzed discussions on Jewish identity and community security, leading to the emergence of Zionism.
Theodore Herzl became a leading figure advocating for a Jewish homeland, emphasizing the need for a secure state to protect Jews from persecution.
Although early ideas regarding the location were vague, Palestine emerged as the focal point for the Zionist movement, gaining support from the British mandate.
The Zionist movement ultimately led to the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, where Herzl is commemorated as a founding figure.