SOL Biology Review Guide

Biology SOL Review Packet

Scientific Investigation

  • Steps to the Scientific Method

    • Make observations/Do research to determine the problem.

    • Develop a Research Question to specify what to determine.

    • Develop a hypothesis based on research from various sources.

      • Sources include scientific journals, encyclopedias, and state/local agencies.

    • Conduct a Controlled Experiment to test the hypothesis.

    • Interpret and Analyze Data using tables and graphs.

    • Draw Conclusions and suggest improvements for future experiments.

    • Communicate Results for others to build on.

  • Terms

    • Hypothesis is an educated guess in "IF THEN" form.

    • Variables are factors measured in an experiment.

    • Independent variable is purposely changed.

    • Dependent variable changes due to the independent variable.

    • Control is the baseline measurement for comparison.

    • Experiment is a structured way to test a hypothesis.

Scientific Tools

  • Tools

    • Balance for measuring mass.

    • Microscopes like light and electron for examining specimens.

    • Graduated cylinder for measuring precise volumes.

  • Microscope Parts

    • Ocular lens, objective lens, diaphragm, fine focus, etc.

    • Functions like adjusting light, magnification, and focusing.

Characteristics of Living Things

  • 7 Themes of Biology

    • Include cells, metabolism, homeostasis, reproduction, heredity, evolution, and interdependence.

  • Biological Terms

    • From smallest to largest: cell, tissue, organ, organism, population, species, community, ecosystem, biosphere.

Life at the Molecular Level

  • Inorganic Compounds

    • Water properties like polarity, hydrogen bonding, cohesion, adhesion, and high heat capacity.

    • Functions in homeostasis, solvent properties, and the pH scale.

  • Water Cycle

    • Processes like precipitation, percolation, runoff, transpiration, evaporation, and condensation.

  • Carbon Dioxide/Oxygen Cycle

    • Involves autotrophs using chloroplasts for photosynthesis and mitochondria for respiration.

    • Processes include converting solar energy to chemical energy, producing glucose, and utilizing CO2 and O2.

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B. Organic Compounds

  • 4 different organic compounds

  • All organic molecules contain carbon and are essential for life

  1. Carbohydrates

    • Built to store energy in plants

    • Broken down for cellular energy

    • Monosaccharides like glucose are building blocks

  2. Lipids

    • Include fats, oils, and waxes

    • Used for energy storage in animals

    • Cuticle in leaves is a protective lipid layer

  3. Proteins

    • Made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

    • Enzymes are proteins that speed up reactions

    • Enzymes have active sites for specific substrates

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4. Nucleic Acids

  • DNA and RNA are types of nucleic acids

  • Nucleotides are the building blocks

  • DNA stores genetic information and RNA helps in protein synthesis

  • DNA forms a double helix structure

  • Replication makes an exact copy of DNA

  • Genetic engineering involves inserting foreign DNA into host DNA

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IV. Life at the Cellular Level

  • Cell Theory: all living things are made of cells, basic building blocks of life, cells come from other cells

  • Development of Cell Theory by scientists like Leeuwenhoek, Hooke, Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow

  • Types of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes with different characteristics

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D. Cellular Organelles

  • Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, vacuole, cell wall, chloroplast, cell membrane are important organelles

  • Each organelle has specific functions in the cell

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F. The Fluid Mosaic Model and Movement through the Cell Membrane

  • Cell membrane composed of phospholipids, proteins, and carbohydrates

  • Passive transport like diffusion moves molecules from high to low concentration

  • Active transport requires energy and moves molecules against the concentration gradient

  • Different types of transport mechanisms like osmosis, endocytosis, and exocytosis exist

Cell Division and Mitosis

  • Chromosomes consist of two chromatids held together by centromeres.

    • Centrioles assist in chromosome movement in animal cells.

  • During anaphase, sister chromatids are separated at the centromere and pulled to opposite ends.

  • DNA replication occurs in interphase for identical information in each cell.

  • Chromosomes line up in metaphase, with chromatin representing uncoiled DNA.

  • Spindle fibers in anaphase shorten to pull chromosomes to the poles.

  • Cytokinesis follows nucleus division, with a cell plate in plant cells and a furrow in animal cells.

  • Spindle fibers attach to chromosomes at the centromere in prophase and telophase.

  • Different phases of mitosis include prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Meiosis

  • Meiosis produces gametes like eggs and sperm with half the chromosomes of body cells.

  • Homologous chromosomes exchange information during crossing over.

  • Diploid cells have two complete sets of chromosomes, while haploid cells have one set.

  • Fertilization of egg and sperm forms a diploid zygote.

  • Meiosis involves two divisions compared to mitosis's single division.

Making Proteins

  • Proteins are essential components of living organisms.

  • Protein synthesis involves transcription and translation.

  • Transcription copies genetic code from DNA to mRNA.

  • mRNA carries the message to ribosomes in the cytoplasm for translation.

  • Codons on mRNA match with anticodons on tRNA to deliver amino acids.

  • Amino acids are linked by bonds to form peptides, ultimately creating proteins.

DNA Technology

  • DNA fingerprinting identifies individuals, with identical twins having the same fingerprint.

  • Gel electrophoresis helps determine unique DNA fingerprints.

  • The Human Genome Project involved 13 countries collaborating to understand human DNA sequences and genes.

Genetics

  • Genetics studies heredity, traits, and genes.

  • Genotypes represent the genes present in an organism's genome.

  • Mendel is known as the Father of Modern Genetics.

  • Alleles are different forms of the same gene, influencing traits.

  • Phenotype reflects an organism's physical appearance.

  • Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses analyze inheritance patterns.

  • Laws of independent assortment and segregation govern gene inheritance.

  • Incomplete dominance and codominance show blending and equal expression of traits.

  • Sex-linked traits are controlled by genes on sex chromosomes.

Mutations

  • Gene mutations involve changes in nucleotide bases of DNA.

  • Mutagens like UV light and chemicals can cause gene mutations.

  • Point mutations change one nucleotide base, while frameshift mutations shift the codon sequence.

  • Frameshift mutations occur when nucleotides are added or deleted in DNA.

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  • DNA Replication and Mutations

    • If "G" is deleted from the original DNA sequence, the number of complete codons would be 3 (UAU, UGG, AAU).

    • Addition of "C" to the beginning of the replicated DNA sequence changes the mRNA sequence to GUAUNGCOGAUAA.

  • Chromosomal Mutations

    • Types of mutations: duplication, inversion, insertion, deletion, translocation, nondisjunction, polyploidy.

    • Examples of mutations: duplication repeats a chromosome segment, deletion removes a segment, insertion adds a segment, translocation moves chromosome pieces.

    • Polyploidy involves extra sets of chromosomes in a cell.

    • Haploid cells have half the number of chromosomes of a body cell, while diploid cells have 2 sets of chromosomes.

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  • Genetic Disorders

    • Karyotype detects mutations in chromosome numbers.

    • Trisomy on the 21st chromosome pair causes Down Syndrome.

    • Turner Syndrome results from monosomy in the sex chromosomes.

  • Taxonomy

    • Taxonomy organizes organisms by Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.

    • Classification trick: DOMRIN (Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species).

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  • Naming Organisms

    • Binomial nomenclature developed by Linneaus uses genus and species names.

    • Organisms in the same genus are in the same family.

    • Examples of organisms in the same genus but different species.

    • Classification of organisms based on cell type, structure, and nutrition.

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  • Viruses and Disease

    • Viruses are nonliving entities that infect cells using DNA and a protein capsid.

    • Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses.

    • Vaccines help organisms build immunity against viruses.

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  • Evolution and Origin of Life

    • Disproving spontaneous generation through experiments by Redi and Pasteur.

    • Bacteria and maggots do not spontaneously generate in controlled experiments.

    • Pasteur's experiment with a special flask disproved spontaneous generation theory.

First Life

  • Earth's atmosphere was hot and low in oxygen for organic molecules to form.

    • Organic molecules grouped to form self-replicating structures evolving into cells.

  • Prokaryotic cells were the first to evolve.

  • Photosynthesis by cells led to more oxygen in the atmosphere.

    • Increased oxygen allowed a wider variety of organisms to evolve on land.

  • Some cells engulfed each other, forming more complex cells known as eukaryotes.

Early Theorists

  • Lamarck's theories:

    • Law of Use and Disuse: Use it or lose it.

    • Inheritance of Acquired Traits: Beneficial traits passed on.

  • Lamarck believed giraffes' long necks were due to stretching to reach tall trees.

Charles Darwin

  • Natural Selection: Survival of the fittest.

  • Galapagos Islands had different food sources leading to finches with varied beaks.

  • "The Origin of Species" compiled evidence for evolution.

  • Rates of Evolution:

    • Gradualism: Small adaptive changes over time.

    • Punctuated Equilibrium: Periods of rapid change followed by stability.

Evidence of Common Ancestry

  • Homologous structures indicate common evolutionary origin.

  • DNA sequences show similarities between species.

  • Embryology reveals similarities in early stages of different organisms.

  • Vestigial organs like the appendix suggest remnants of past evolutionary adaptations.

Ecology

  • Ecological Succession: Sequential replacement of ecological communities.

  • Biomes: Geographic areas with specific plant and animal types.

  • Various biomes like rainforests, deserts, tundras, and grasslands have distinct characteristics.

  • Vocabulary: Definitions of terms like producer, consumer, biotic, abiotic, etc.

Decomposers and Food Chains

  • Decomposers like bacteria and fungi break down decaying organisms, returning nutrients to the soil.

  • In food webs or chains, the arrow indicates the direction of energy flow.

  • Example food chain: grass (producer) -> rabbit (herbivore) -> fox (carnivore).

  • If the rabbit population increases, the fox population would likely increase.

Relationships in Ecosystems

  • Parasitism harms one organism while benefiting the other.

  • Mutualism benefits both organisms.

  • Commensalism example: buffalo and bird that picks insects off the buffalo.

  • Symbiosis involves organisms living together for mutual benefit.

  • Limiting factors restrict population size.

  • Examples of limiting factors: sunlight availability in rainforests, water availability in deserts, and competition for food in deer populations.

Body Systems

Circulatory System

  • Essential for carrying oxygen to cells and removing carbon dioxide.

  • Blood is considered a tissue with white and red blood cells performing specific functions.

Digestive System

  • Breaks down food into organic molecules for cellular energy production.

  • Also responsible for removing solid wastes from the body.

Excretory System

  • Removes liquid wastes and regulates water levels in the body.

  • Components include kidneys, bladder, ureters, and urethra.

Immune System

  • Skin is the body's first line of defense.

  • Antibodies fight specific pathogens to build immunity.

  • Vaccines use weakened viruses to stimulate immunity.

Musculatory System

  • Muscles operate the body and use energy.

  • Muscle cells contain mitochondria for energy production.

Nervous System

  • Consists of the brain, nerves, and spinal cord, controlling body functions.

  • Role is similar to the nucleus in a cell.

Respiratory System

  • Lungs are the main organ for oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange in the blood.

Skeletal System

  • Supports the body