Comprehensive Study Guide on Indian Agriculture: Concepts, Crops, and Policies

Introduction to Indian Agriculture

  • Definition of Agriculture: Refers to man’s management of the environment to produce food. It has been practiced since ancient ages.
  • Cultivable Area: The Net Sown Area in India accounts for approximately 46%46\% of the total geographical area.
  • Demographic Dependence: Nearly 2/3rd2/3^{rd} of the Indian population depends on agriculture either directly or indirectly.
  • Economic Importance:
    • Considered the backbone of the Indian economy.
    • Primary provider of food for human beings.
    • Major source of fodder for livestock/animals.
    • Serves as the source of raw materials for agro-based industries.
    • Acts as a consumer for many industries; improvements in agricultural techniques (use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) increase the demand for industrial products like tractors, harvesters, and threshers.

Salient Features and Seasonal Divisions

  • General Characteristics:
    • Heavy dependence on monsoons for irrigation.
    • Cultivation of a wide variety of crops.
    • Preponderance of food crops over cash crops.
  • Crop Seasons:
    • Kharif Season:
    • Cropping Period: Sowing in April–May; Harvesting at the beginning of November.
    • Northern States Crops: Bajra, Maize, Rice, Cotton, Jowar, Tur.
    • Southern States Crops: Rice, Maize, Ragi, Jowar, Groundnut.
    • Rabi Season:
    • Cropping Period: Sowing at the end of October or beginning of November; Harvesting in March.
    • Northern States Crops: Wheat, Gram, Mustard, Rapeseeds, Barley.
    • Southern States Crops: Rice, Maize, Ragi, Groundnut, Jowar.
    • Zaid Season:
    • Cropping Period: April to June.
    • Northern States Crops: Vegetables, Fodder.
    • Southern States Crops: Fruits, Rice, Vegetables, Fodder.

The Green Revolution and Intensive Development

  • Definition: The Green Revolution refers to the introduction of High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds and the increased use of chemical fertilizers and irrigation methods. It served as a turning point in Indian agriculture in the late sixties.
  • Intensive Agricultural Development Program (IADP): Measures taken include:
    • Use of High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds.
    • Expansion of irrigation facilities.
    • Application of insecticides and pesticides.
    • Consolidation of land holdings and implementation of land reforms.
    • Rural electrification and improved rural infrastructure.
    • Supply of agricultural credit.
    • Increased use of chemical fertilizers.
    • Establishment of agricultural universities.

Major Problems in Indian Agriculture

  • Structural Issues: Small and fragmented landholdings; excessive pressure on the land.
  • Resource Issues: Poor quality of seeds; lack of proper use of manure and fertilizer; unavailability of proper storage facilities.
  • Environmental Issues: Erratic nature of rainfall (monsoon dependence); pests and diseases.
  • Productivity Issues: Low yield per hectare; farmers do not receive suitable prices for their crops; traditional upbringing/methods.

Classification of Farming Types

  • Subsistence Farming: The farmer produces exclusively for personal consumption.
    • Primitive Method: Simple tools and techniques to grow food for survival.
    • Shifting Agriculture (Jhooming): A patch of forest land is cleared by burning. Crops are grown for 2–32\text{--}3 years until soil fertility is exhausted. The land is then abandoned for a fresh piece of land (Slash and Burn cultivation).
  • Commercial Agriculture: Food crops produced specifically for market sale using improved seeds and machinery.
    • Intensive Farming: Aims at maximum production on limited farms by raising more than one crop per year. Employs huge capital and human labor per hectare; practiced in densely populated areas.
    • Extensive Farming: Done on large farms with extensive use of machines. Generally yields only one crop per year. Employs less labor and capital per hectare compared to intensive farming. Common in the USA, Canada, Russia, and Australia.
  • Plantation Farming: Introduced by the British in the 19th19^{th} century. Growing and processing a single cash crop for sale. Requires large capital, vast estates, managerial ability, technical know-how, sophisticated machinery, and good transport.
  • Mixed Farming: Simultaneous cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock. Includes crop rotation (e.g., using root crops like beets/turnips and legumes like beans/peas to maintain fertility). May include poultry, dairy, and horticulture on the same farm.
  • Organic Farming: Natural cultivation and rearing involving crop rotation, green manure, biological pest control, and compost.

Food Crops: Cereals and Rice

  • Definition: Plants cultivated for human consumption including cereals, legumes, vegetables, tubers, and fruits.
  • Cereals: Grasses belonging to the Poaceae family (monocot); rich in carbohydrates. Examples: Rice, Wheat, Maize, Millets.
  • Pulses: Leguminous crops producing pods with 1–121\text{--}12 seeds; rich in proteins and amino acids. Examples: Gram, Chickpeas, Lentil, Dry beans.
  • Rice (Oryza Sativa):
    • Status: Most important staple food (North East and South India). It is a Kharif crop and is tropical/sub-tropical.
    • Varieties: 10,00010,000 world varieties; 4,0004,000 in India (e.g., Basmati, Sona Masuri, Ponni, Rosematta, Idly Rice).
    • Temperature Requirements: Average 24∘C24^{\circ}\text{C} (Range: 16∘C16^{\circ}\text{C} to 32∘C32^{\circ}\text{C}). Growing season requires 18∘C18^{\circ}\text{C}, ripening requires 32∘C32^{\circ}\text{C}.
    • Rainfall: 150 cm150\,\text{cm} to 200 cm200\,\text{cm}; needs flooded fields.
    • Soils: Deeper fertile clayey or friable loams are ideal; also grows in black lava soil.
    • Cultivation Methods:
    • Broadcasting: Scattering seeds by hand.
    • Dibbling: Dropping seeds in holes made by a pointed stick called a dibber.
    • Drilling: Dropping seeds in straight furrows via a bamboo shaft attached to a plough.
    • Transplantation: Seeds are sown in nurseries for 44 weeks; when seedlings reach 20 cm20\,\text{cm}, they are replanted in flooded fields. Yields are higher and seeds are saved.
    • Japanese Method: Use of high-quality seeds, raised nursery beds, and transplanting in rows to facilitate weeding/manuring. Yields up to three times more.
    • Diseases and Pests: Tungro virus, Green leaf hopper, Stem rot, Blast of paddy, Bacterial leaf streak.
    • Distribution: West Bengal (15%15\% - largest producer), Tamil Nadu (highest yield of 3000 kg/hectare3000\,\text{kg/hectare}), UP, Punjab, Odisha, Bihar, AP, and Telangana.

Food Crops: Wheat and Pulses

  • Wheat:
    • Status: Most important Rabi crop; staple of North and North West India. It is a temperate crop rich in protein and vitamins.
    • Varieties:
    • Common Bread Wheat (Triticum Vilgare): Widely grown in Punjab, Haryana, UP; used for bread and noodles.
    • Macaroni/Durum Wheat: Harder variety used for pasta; grown in MP, Maharashtra, and Western AP.
    • Emmer (Triticum Dicocum): "Khapli"; grown in parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, AP, TN, and Karnataka.
    • Temperature: 10∘C10^{\circ}\text{C} to 15∘C15^{\circ}\text{C} during sowing; 20∘C20^{\circ}\text{C} to 25∘C25^{\circ}\text{C} during harvesting.
    • Rainfall: 50 cm50\,\text{cm} to 100 cm100\,\text{cm}; winter rain increases yield.
    • Soils: Alluvial, loamy, or black soil.
    • Processing: Threshing (separating grain from spike) and Winnowing (loosening chaff).
    • Diseases: Rust (fungal), Stripe rust, Black point, Loose smut.
    • Distribution: India is the 4th4^{th} largest producer. UP (34%34\%), Punjab, and Haryana are the "Wheat Granary of India."
  • Gram (Channa): Principal pulse. Sown Sept–Nov, harvested Feb–April. Requires 20∘C–25∘C20^{\circ}\text{C}\text{--}25^{\circ}\text{C} and moderate rainfall (50–100 cm50\text{--}100\,\text{cm}). Used for Dal, Besan, and livestock feed.

Other Food Crops: Maize and Millets

  • Maize:
    • Status: Used as food, fodder, and for starch/glucose. Grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons (mostly Kharif).
    • Temperature: 21∘C21^{\circ}\text{C} to 27∘C27^{\circ}\text{C} (tolerates up to 35∘C35^{\circ}\text{C}). Frost is injurious.
    • Soils: Fertile, well-drained alluvial soil or red loams rich in nitrogen.
    • Cultivation: Sown before monsoon, harvested after. Shelling involves removing corns and drying them in the sun.
  • Millets (Jowar, Bajra, Ragi):
    • General: Hardy, drought-resistant, heat-resistant grasses. Often grown where rice/wheat cannot grow.
    • Jowar: Rain-fed crop of dry farming. Sown as Kharif (light sandy soil) or Rabi (black regur soil).
    • Bajra: "Bull Rush/Pearl Millet". Sown as rotation/mixed crop. Largest producer is Rajasthan. Requires light showers and bright sunshine.
    • Ragi: "Finger Millet". High in nutrients. Largest producer is Karnataka.

Cash Crops: Fiber Crops (Cotton and Jute)

  • Cotton:
    • Importance: Basic raw material for textiles. India ranks 3rd3^{rd} globally.
    • Types:
    • Long Staple: 24–27 mm24\text{--}27\,\text{mm}; used for fine cloth (Half of Indian production).
    • Medium Staple: 20–24 mm20\text{--}24\,\text{mm}.
    • Short Staple: Less than 19 mm19\,\text{mm}.
    • Requirements: 21∘C21^{\circ}\text{C} to 27∘C27^{\circ}\text{C}, 200200 frost-free days, 50–80 cm50\text{--}80\,\text{cm} rainfall. Best in deep black soils.
    • Processing: Ginning (separating fiber from seed). Lint is tied in bales in roller gins.
  • Jute:
    • Importance: "Golden Fibre"; earns foreign exchange. Strong, soft, and cheap.
    • Varieties: White Jute (deltas/lowlands) and Tossa Jute (uplands).
    • Requirements: Tropical (24∘C–35∘C24^{\circ}\text{C}\text{--}35^{\circ}\text{C}), high humidity (80%%–90%%80\%\%\text{--}90\%\%), and high rainfall (170–200 cm170\text{--}200\,\text{cm}).
    • Processing: Retting (microbiological process using water to loosen bark and remove fiber from stalk for 2–32\text{--}3 weeks).

Cash Crops: Oilseeds and Sugarcane

  • Oilseeds: Used for edible oils, lubricants, soaps, and cattle feed.
    • Groundnut: Most important oilseed. Grown in pods underground. Sown in June, harvested Oct–Dec (40%%–50%%40\%\%\text{--}50\%\% oil content).
    • Mustard: Rabi crop, harvested when yellow. Contains 25%%–45%%25\%\%\text{--}45\%\% oil.
    • Soyabean: Rich in protein (28%%28\%\% oil). Used for oil, sauce, and nuggets.
  • Sugarcane:
    • Status: Key source of sugar, Gur (jaggery), and Khandsari. Belongs to the bamboo family.
    • Requirements: 20∘C20^{\circ}\text{C} to 30∘C30^{\circ}\text{C}, 75–120 cm75\text{--}120\,\text{cm} rainfall. Maturation takes 15–1815\text{--}18 months.
    • Methods:
    • Sett Method: Cuttings from old plants (setts) are planted.
    • Ratooning: Harvesting the cane but leaving the root intact for a second crop. Faster and cheaper, but productivity decreases with each succession.
    • Processing Rule: Must be crushed within 4848 hours of harvesting to prevent sucrose loss.

Beverage Crops: Tea and Coffee

  • Tea:
    • Background: Indigenous to China but discovered wild in Assam (Robert Bruce, 18231823). Plantations began in Brahmaputra Valley in 18391839.
    • Varieties: Black (fermented), Green (non-fermented), Oolong (partially fermented).
    • Processing: Withering (moisture removal) $\rightarrow$ Rolling (leaf twisting) $\rightarrow$ Fermentation (oxidation to copper red) $\rightarrow$ Drying/Fixing $\rightarrow$ Sorting $\rightarrow$ Blending $\rightarrow$ Packing.
    • Cultivation: Shade-loving; needs pruning to lateral branches for easy hand plucking.
  • Coffee:
    • Background: Native to Abyssinia (Ethiopia). Brought to India by Babu Budan (11th11^{th} century).
    • Varieties: Arabica (49%%49\%\%) and Robusta (51%%51\%\%).
    • Requirements: 15∘C15^{\circ}\text{C} to 28∘C28^{\circ}\text{C}; needs shade and protection from dry winds.
    • Processing:
    • Wet Method: Pulping, fermenting, washing, and drying (Plantation coffee).
    • Dry Method: Sun-drying berries followed by pounding (Cherry coffee).
    • Roasting: Essential for developing flavor and brown color.

National Agricultural Policy (July 2000)

  • Aims: Remove structural problems and inefficient use of natural resources.
  • Salient Objectives:
    • Modernizing the agricultural sector and enhancing yield.
    • Protecting underprivileged farmers and checking environmental degradation.
    • Promoting multi-cropping and rational water use.
    • Utilizing barren wasteland for afforestation.
    • Legislative protection for plant varieties.
    • Providing financial incentives and credit to landless laborers.