Feminist Theories of Crime Causation Study Notes

Feminist Theories of Crime Causation

Introduction

• Traditional criminological theories primarily focused on male criminality.

• Female offenders often rendered invisible or excluded from these theories.

• General agreement exists that women offend at lower rates than men (Heidensohn, 1997).

• Prisons demonstrate a significant gender disparity, with fewer women incarcerated than men.

• Early criminological theories characterized women in a binary manner: either ‘good’ or ‘mad’ or ‘bad’.

• Physiological and psychological factors were seen as explanations for female deviance.

Early Explanations of Female Criminality

Cesare Lombroso (1895) - La Donna Delinquente ‘The Female Offender’

• Lombroso's book described female criminality as an inherent trait among women lacking proper moral development.

• Women were thought to be biologically and psychologically less inclined to commit crimes.

• Women who did engage in crime were classified as ‘occasional criminals’ who committed acts due to male influence or extreme temptation.

• Characteristics of criminal women included:

  • More masculine attributes: height, dark hair, presence of moles.

  • Physiological immobility: tied to traditional female roles in the family, leading to a sedentary lifestyle.

  • Psychological passivity, exemplified in behaviors like lying about menstruation or masturbation.

  • Amorality, being perceived as cold and calculated.

• Noted that women are capable of greater adaptability to stressors in prison, exhibiting stronger survival traits compared to men.

• While acknowledging lower crime rates among women, Lombroso posited that women have higher rates of undetected crime, particularly in sexual offenses (Bacik, 2002).

W. I. Thomas - ‘Sex and Society’ (1907) and ‘The Unadjusted Girl’ (1923)

• In ‘Sex and Society’, focused on physiological distinctions between genders.

  • Women conserve energy more than men.

  • Men are driven by higher sexual energy.

  • Women’s desirability allows them to trade sex for social stability.

• In ‘The Unadjusted Girl’:

  • Proposed that female deviance is a normal reaction in specific contexts.

  • Advocated for rehabilitation rather than punishment; individuals can be socialized for societal utility (Klein, 1973).

  • Conceptualization of ‘bad’ women as exploiters, contrasting with ‘good’ women who utilize sexuality defensively.

  • Suggested that ‘bad’ women could reform their outlook and reclassify themselves as ‘good’.

Otto Pollak (1950)

• Supported Lombroso’s concept of hidden female deviance; argued women's crime is frequently concealed.

• Described women as deceitful, making them capable of undetectable crime (Klein, 1973).

  • Physiological nature allows women to mask emotional experiences in crime.

• Identified specific crimes such as prostitution, false accusations, and shoplifting as typical among women.

• The Chivalry Thesis:

  • Liberal feminists view the legal system as treating women with unnecessary deference.

  • Males are viewed as protectors, maintaining a gender hierarchy that diminishes women's accountability.

Double Deviance

• When women deviate from traditional gender roles, they lose the benefits of chivalry and may be punished more severely (Double Deviance).

• Perceptions of ‘good’ women before the court lead to more lenient treatment, while ‘bad’ women face harsher penalties for their deviations.

Sigmund Freud

• Freud’s theories posited that women’s inferior status stems from biological determinism—“anatomy is destiny.”

• ‘Penis envy’ described a woman’s struggle with feelings of inferiority, and failure to overcome it could lead to deviance through the development of a masculinity complex.

• Claimed women are viewed as inherently irrational when compared to the rational male.

• The deviant woman is depicted as one attempting to usurp male identity.

• Emphasized that normality for women involves adhering to traditional roles as wives and mothers, which historically enforced gender inequality.

The Emergence of Feminism

• Feminism critiques the lack of representation of women in empirical crime studies, including the sexualization of female deviance.

• Challenge the biologically deterministic (positivist) reasoning surrounding female deviance.

Key Features of Feminist Theory

• Daly and Chesney-Lind identified six core elements:

  • Gender is seen as a complex social and historical construct, rather than a natural fact.

  • Gender and relations structure social life and institutions fundamentally.

  • Masculinity and femininity constructs are asymmetrical, emphasizing men’s dominance over women.

  • Knowledge systems reflect masculine perspectives on societal order.

  • Women must be central to analysis in social inquiry, not merely peripheral figures.

Varieties of Feminist Perspectives

Liberal Feminism

• Attributes crime to gender socialization processes.

Marxist Feminism

• Examines the intersection of class and gender which influences social stratification.

Radical Feminism

• Views crime as a manifestation of male control over women.

Socialist Feminism

• Investigates the links between capitalism and patriarchy influencing social roles of women.

• Seeks to unify insights from Marxist and radical perspectives.

Conclusion on Feminist Contributions

• Adler claimed societal liberation led to an increase in women committing traditionally male-dominated crimes.

• Heidensohn noted that women faced social marginalization and poverty, which drives criminality.

• Women committing crimes are often labeled doubly deviant, recognized as both criminal and abnormal.

• Carlen identified women’s crime arising from inherent patriarchy and sociopolitical oppression.

Carlen's Research

• Conducted in-depth interviews with 39 women, revealing that their crimes were ‘crimes of the powerless’.

  • Findings aligned with Hirschi’s control theory, noting significant experiences of poverty among her subjects (32 reported economic hardship).

  • Many participants had histories of abuse and were victimized, resulting in criminal behavior as a rational response to their circumstances.

Masculinities and Crime

• Traditional criminology often overlooks the relationship between various forms of masculinity and criminal behavior.

• Men are socialized toward hegemonic masculinity involving:

  • Success in the labor market.

  • Subordination of women; failure to fulfill masculine roles may lead to crime as a means of asserting masculinity.

• Different societal mechanisms manifest through various classes and racial identities, influencing specific pathways to delinquency.

  • White middle-class males achieve status via academic and sports success.

  • Contrastingly, working-class males may resort to mischief or petty crime as demonstrations of masculinity.

Violence Among Adult Males

• Instances of domestic abuse can serve as a means of affirming masculinity amidst economic instability.

• Calls for a deeper analysis of masculinity in relation to crime, including how intersectionality influences individual experiences.

Male Social Support Theory

• Proposed by DeKeseredy & Schwartz, which suggests that societal norms surrounding masculinity contribute to the victimization of women.

• Suggests violence often stems from male social relationships rather than psychological abnormalities.

• Violence against women linked to factors including:

  • Peer groups that objectify females.

  • Excessive alcohol consumption.

  • Lack of effective deterrents.

• Connects macro-level patriarchal systems to individual behaviors through male peer interactions.

Consequences of Feminist Perspectives

• Acknowledges that feminist theories have reshaped criminology to prioritize gender as a pivotal theme.

• Despite these advancements, the narratives remain predominantly male-centric.

• Feminism aims to reformulate the study of crime to include gendered perspectives without alienating men.

Policies Impacting Feminist Perspectives

• Implementation of policies reflecting feminist theories, including:

  • Mandates for arrest in domestic violence cases.

  • Overhauls in rape laws with added emphasis on date rape.

  • Introduction of rape shield laws protecting victims from past sexual history being used against them in court.

Issues in Women’s Prisons

• Women in prisons present unique challenges:

  • Many enter prison while pregnant or as mothers with dependent children.

  • Inadequate reproductive health services available.

  • Predominantly male staffing reinforces narrow views on women’s needs.

  • Existing rehabilitation programs often fail to address the realities faced by incarcerated women.

Critiques of Established Theories

• Feminist scholars have challenged Merton’s (1923) Strain Theory, criticizing it for:

  • An overemphasis on economic goals that underestimate the lived experiences and relationships impacting women’s criminality.

  • A call for further inquiry into the limitations of the Chicago School of Criminology and Subcultural Theory from a feminist lens (suggests independent study).

Conclusion

• Feminist scholarship has significantly contributed to “gendering criminology.”

• Future challenges necessitate examining both gender differences and similarities in criminality, with evidence suggesting common risk factors across genders manifesting variably based on social contexts.