Aviation notes

Intro to Air Law

401: Introduction to the Canadian Aviation Regulation (CARs)

• CARs are federal laws governing aviation in Canada.

• The Aeronautical Act:

  • This legal document governs aviation in Canada.

  • It enables the Canadian Aviation Regulation (CARs).

  • Splits aviation into two categories:

  • Civil Aviation: Primarily governed by CARs.

  • Military Aviation: Has different rules than civil aviation.

401.01.01: Overview of Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs)

• Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs):

  • Primarily serve as civil aviation laws.

  • Compilation of regulatory requirements that enhance safety and competitiveness in the Canadian aviation industry.

  • Divided into two subcomponents:

  • Regulatory Text: Federal laws. To find them refer to the Canadian Justice Laws webpage. The format uses the first digit as the identifier and the second digit as '0' for regulatory text (e.g., 401.01).

  • Standards: They elaborate on the regulatory text, available on the TC website, identified by second digit as '2' (e.g., 421.05).

  • Subsections of CARs include:

  • Part I: General Provisions

  • Part II: Aircraft Identification and Regulation and Operation of a Leased Aircraft by a Non-registered Owner

  • Part III: Aerodrome, Airports, and Heliports

  • Part IV: Personal Licensing and Training

  • Part V: Airworthiness

  • Part VI: General Operating and Flight Rules

  • Part VII: Commercial Air Services

  • Part VIII: Air Navigation Services

  • Part IX: Repeals and Coming into Force

401.01.02: TC Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)

• TC AIM:

  • Manual provided by TC, available in paper and online format.

  • Contains information about air law, aerodromes, meteorology, rules of the air, air traffic control, licensing, and airmanship.

  • Release Schedule: New editions are published twice a year.

  • Terminology:

  • Should: Indicates encouragement to conform (not mandatory).

  • Shall: Indicates a mandatory procedure supported by CARs.

  • May: Indicates optional actions.

401.01.03: Canada Flight Supplement (CFS)

• CFS:

  • Used for flight planning.

  • Joint military and civil document published by NAV CANADA on the civilian side.

  • New edition issued every 56 days.

  • Subsections include:

  • General

  • Aerodrome Dictionary (details all aerodromes in Canada)

  • Planning

  • Radio Navigation and Communication

  • Military

  • Emergency Services

401.01.04: Transportation Safety Board (TSB)

• TSB:

  • Established under the Canadian Transportation Accident Investigation and Safety Board Act.

  • Responsible for investigating all transportation occurrences in Canada for both Canadian and non-Canadian registered civilian aircraft.

  • Available for 24-hour standby in significant incidents.

  • Focuses on accident prevention but does not assign blame or liability.

• For Military and Cadets: They refer to the Directorate of Flight Safety (DFS).

401.01.05: NAV Canada Services

• NAV Canada Services:

  • Provides flight planning services, Area Control Centers (ACC), and Air Traffic Control Towers at busy airports.

  • Flight Service Stations (FSS): deliver advisory services including winds, weather, and runway conditions.

  • Flight Information Center (FIC): offers flight planning services and emergency services.

  • Community Aerodrome Radio Stations (CARS): Contracted services in northern Canada.

401.02: Terminology and ATC Communications

401.02.01: Terminology

• Instrument Flight Rules (IFR): Rules applicable when primarily flying using cockpit instruments.

• Visual Flight Rules (VFR): Rules applicable when flying primarily reliant on visual ground references.

• Special Visual Flight Rules (SVFR): Rules utilized during weather conditions that are below VFR standards.

• Ceiling: The lowest height where broken or overcast conditions exist, or where visibility is hampered (like fog or snow conditions).

• Visibility: The ability to see unlighted objects by day and lighted objects by night, measured in Statute Miles (sm) or Nautical Miles (nm).

• Flight Visibility: Average visibility as seen from the cockpit in flight.

• Ground Visibility: Average visibility reported at an aerodrome by ATC, FSS, or AWOS (Automatic Weather Observation Station).

• Day or Daylight: Defined as the time between morning civil twilight and evening civil twilight.

• Night: Defined as the period between evening civil twilight and morning civil twilight.

• Civil Twilight: Occurs when the sun is less than 6 degrees below the horizon.

401.02.02: Logging of Flights

• CAR 401.08: Every student and pilot must maintain an up-to-date personal logbook to track experience and recency.

• Flight Time: Total time from when an aircraft moves under its own power until it comes to rest (includes time on ground and air time).

• Air Time: Total time aircraft is airborne, measured from leaving the surface until touching down again.

• CAR 401.08(2): Requirements for personal logbook include:

  • Pilot's name

  • Date of flight

  • Type of aircraft and its registration markings

  • Pilot's position (PIC or Co-Pilot)

  • Flight conditions (including day/night, VFR/IFR)

  • Flight time

  • For gliders: Launch method used

  • For airplanes: Departure and arrival locations; all intermediate take-offs and landings.

401.02.03: ATC Clearances and Instructions

• ATC Clearances: Authorization by ATC to perform an action; acceptance obligates the pilot to comply with the clearance (no revokes possible).

• ATC Instructions: Directives issued by ATC that the pilot must execute (no choices).

401.02.04: Visual Light Signals

• Visual Light Signals: Methods of communication when ATC cannot be reached.

• Ground Signals:

  • Series of green flashes: Clear to taxi.

  • Steady stream of green: Clear for takeoff.

  • Series of red flashes: Taxi clear of area.

  • Steady stream of red: Stop.

  • Series of white flashes: Return to starting point.

  • Blinking white runway light: Evacuate area.

• Air Signals:

  • Series of green flashes: Return to landing.

  • Steady stream of green: Cleared for landing.

  • Series of red flashes: Airport unsafe; do not land.

  • Steady stream of red: Yield to other aircraft and continue circling.

  • Firing of red pyrotechnic light: Do not land for now.

401.03: Licensing and Documenting

401.03.01: License Validity

• Aircrew requirements:

  • Must hold appropriate permit, license, or rating.

  • License must be valid with a current medical certificate for operation.

  • Must be able to present license upon request.

• License renewal obligations:

  • At least 5 years since acting as PIC or Co-Pilot in an aircraft.

  • Completed flight review in 12 months and certified logbook.

  • Completed recurrent training program within 2 years.

  • To carry passengers, must have completed 5 takeoffs and 5 landings.

  • Glider pilots: Need 2 takeoffs and landings with an instructor and certification to carry passengers from the latter.

• Medical Requirements: Conducted by Civil Aviation Medical Examiners (CAME).

  • Glider pilot medicals are valid for 60 months.

  • For private pilots: 60 months if under 40; 24 months if 40 or older.

  • Effective from the first of the month following the medical examination.

401.03.02: Privileges of a Pilot’s License

• Limitations: A pilot cannot exercise license privileges if:

  • Health impairments, drug influences, or receiving medical treatment that could affect capabilities.

  • Pregnant women in the 30th week or women who have given birth in the last 6 weeks.

• Document Production: Must produce aviation-related documents when requested by peace officers, immigration officers, or the transportation minister.

401.03.03: Requests for Production of Documents

• Requirement to produce any Canadian aviation document, technical record, or aviation-related document on request:

  • Peace Officers

  • Immigration Officers

  • Minister

• This also includes producing licenses upon request.

401.03.04: Inspection after Abnormal Occurrences

• Inspection Expectations: Aircraft must be inspected for damage pre-next flight.

  • Can be completed by the pilot in command if no disassembly is needed.

• Examples of Abnormal Occurrences Include: Overspeeds, hard landings, propeller strikes, heavy turbulence.

401.03.05: Requirements to Maintain Technical Records

• Every aircraft owner must have:

  • Journey log for the aircraft.

  • Weight and balance record associated for calculating center of gravity.

  • Technical record for the airframe.

• For gliders or balloons: All information may also be documented in a journey logbook.

401.03.06: Technical Log Requirements

• Required Logbook Updates:

  • Log should include name, sign, and a date (must be legible).

  • Important information should be transferred to new logbooks to maintain chronological order.

  • For corrections, strike incorrectly noted information clearly but ensure original text is legible.

  • Post the correct information alongside signature and date.

401.03.07: Journey Log Requirements (Aircraft)

• Do not make bulk entries unless a daily flight record is utilized or you're operating the same aircraft.

• Obtain daily flight records kept for a minimum of 2 years.

401.03.08: Journey Log

• Do not commence a flight without your journey log unless returning to your starting location.

• Journey Log: The pilot's personal logbook.

401.03.09: Liability Insurance

• Flying requires liability insurance and proof thereof.

• Liability Insurance: Covers potential damages that may arise (e.g. aircraft collision).

401.03.10: AROW JIL

• Must carry the following in any flight:

  • A: Certificate of Airworthiness (CAR 605.03/507.02).

  • R: Certificate of Registration (CAR 202.26).

  • O: Operators Manual/Flight Manual (CAR 605.04).

  • W: Weight and Balance (part of Journey Log).

  • J: Journey Log (personal logbook).

  • I: Insurance for the aircraft.

  • L: Licenses and Radio Operators Certificate from all pilots.

401.04: Aerodromes

401.04.01: Aerodrome Definitions

• Aerodrome: Any area of land/water designated for the arrival/departure and servicing of aircraft.

• Airport: Must have operational certification.

• Maneuvering Area: Region intended for takeoff and landing activities.

401.04.02: Aerodrome Markings

• Markings Requirements (Regulations CAR 301.04):

  • Remove all markings upon permanent closure of an aerodrome (CAR 301.04(1)).

  • Install red flags or cones along borders of unserviceable movement areas (unless a water aerodrome, CAR 301.04(2)).

  • Closed markings on the end of closed taxiways (CAR 301.04(5)).

  • Obliterate all markings when an area is to be permanently closed (CAR 301.04(7)).

  • Color-coded markings utilized when an area cannot be painted over due to snow or ice (CAR 301.04(8)).

  • Wind Direction Indicator Requirements: A windsock must always face into the wind, indicating direction. It can be horizontal during high wind (e.g., over 15 knots) and angled at 5° or 30° for reduced winds accordingly (less than 10 knots or 6 knots respectively).

401.04.03: Aerodrome Lighting

• All lighting should be visible from a distance of 2 nautical miles.

• Night Operation Lighting:

  • White lights along runway edges (CAR 301.07(1)).

  • Automated blue lighting for taxiways (CAR 301.07(5)).

  • Red lights marking unserviceable areas (CAR 301.07(7)).

401.04.04: Marshalling Signals

• Common Signals Include:

  • Straight Ahead: Indicate movement forward using extended arms.

  • Slow Down: Patting motion downwards to reduce speed.

  • Affirmative: Thumbs up signal to indicate safe passage.

  • Stop: Arms extended and crossed above the head.

  • Turn Left/Right: Extended arms at 90-degree angles, indicating direction of turn.

  • Cut Engine: Forward arm motion illustrates stopping the engine.

401.04.05: Runway Markings

• Runway Marking Requirements (CAR 401.04.06):

  • Do not interfere with aerodrome markings unless instructed by ATC.

401.05: General Operations at Aerodromes

401.05.01: Operations Near Aerodromes

• CAR 602.96 applies to VFR or IFR aircraft in or near aerodromes.

• Before takeoff or landing, PIC must ensure:

  • No likelihood of collision.

  • Aerodrome suitability for intended flight operation.

• PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES:

  • Observe traffic flow and avoid collisions.

  • Conform to or avoid set traffic patterns.

  • Complete left-hand turns except where specified otherwise.

  • Avoid flying below 2000' AGL unless for takeoff/landing, emergency services or in accordance with regulations.

401.05.02: VFR and IFR Operations at Uncontrolled Aerodromes within MF Area

• MF (Mandatory Frequency): areas where all traffic communicates on a designated frequency.

• PIC (Pilot in Command) Requirements:

  • Must have a radio aboard the aircraft.

  • Maintain listening watch on the designated frequency.

• Procedures followed in case of no radio available.

401.05.03: MF Reporting Procedures Prior to Entering Maneuvering Areas

• Reporting intentions is crucial before entering the maneuvering area.

401.05.04: MF Reporting Procedures on Arrival

• Mandatory radio calls for MF aerodromes include:

  • Aircraft position and altitude.

  • Procedures intended during landing.

  • Estimated landing time.

  • Position within the traffic circuit, noting downleg and final approach.

401.06: Flight Conditions

401.06.01: Minimum Instruments for Day VFR

• Required Equipment for Gliders:

  • Altimeter.

  • Airspeed indicator.

  • Magnetic compass.

  • Suitable radio for two-way communication.

401.06.02: Meteorological Conditions for VFR Flights in Controlled Airspace

• No person can operate in VFR unless:

  • Flight visibility is ≥ 3 SM.

  • Distance from clouds is at least 500 feet vertically and 1 mile horizontally.

• In control zones:

  • Ground visibility must additionally be ≥ 3 SM.

401.06.03: Meteorological Conditions for VFR Flight in Uncontrolled Airspace

• No person shall operate unless:

  • Ground visuals are maintained.

• Height requirements vary by time of day and must meet visibility criteria including distance from clouds.

401.06.04: Special VFR

• Special VFR Operation Requirements:

  • Request authorization from ATC.

  • Ground visibility must be ≥ 1 mile.

  • Must be equipped for radio communications.

401.07: Airspace

401.07.01: Canadian Domestic Airspace

• Divided into Southern Domestic Airspace and Northern Domestic Airspace.

401.07.02: Airspace Definitions

• Main Airspace Categories Include:

  • A: No VFR allowed.

  • B: Requires radio communication and transponder; ATC maintains separation.

  • C: Requires authorization and has conflict resolution for IFR traffic only.

  • D: Provides traffic information but not separation.

  • E: Provides IFR separation; VFR traffic operates without separation.

  • F: Split between restricted and advisory parts.

  • G: Uncontrolled airspace allowing self-service.

• Height Guidelines:

  • Class A: Between 180,000 - 60,000 feet.

  • Class B: Between 12,500 - 18,000 feet.

401.07.03: Altimeter Settings

• Set using station pressure provided by the nearest air station.

• Standard Pressure Region: Above 18,000 feet with a standard setting of 29.92 " Hg.

• Requires normalization of station pressure to MSL for accurate altitude readings.

401.07.04: Control Zones

• Defined as 5-7 nautical miles around airports and extends upward to 3,000 feet.

401.07.05: Control Area Extension

• Air space adjacent to an airport above control zones.

401.08: Rules of the Air

401.08.01: Right of Way

• Right of Way: Defined as the obligation to avoid other aircraft.

• Actions:

  • Avoid potential collision;

  • Give way to aircraft in emergencies or distress;

  • Follow specified right of way rules based on aircraft types.

401.08.02: Dropping Objects

• Prohibits dropping hazardous items from the aircraft.

401.08.03: Flying over Built-up Areas

• Maintain a distance of 2000 feet from built-up areas unless given permission for landing or other specified operations.

401.08.04: Formation Flying

• Only permitted with prior arrangements among PICs.

401.08.05: Aerobatics

• Not permitted during specified visibility conditions, in specific airspaces or with passengers on board unless authorized and trained.

401.08.06: VFR Cruising Altitude

• Follow cruising altitude rules based on magnetic track for Southern and true track for Northern domestic airspace with specific conditions for VFR flight.

401.09: Aircraft Maintenance, Aviation Occurrences, Flight Planning and Itineraries

401.09.01: Aircraft Maintenance

• Laws governing Non-Maintained Aircraft: Flights allowed with no passengers if within law.

401.09.02: Maintenance Release and Elementary Work

• Include non-maintenance tasks documented in the logbook.

401.09.03: Maintenance Schedules

• All aircraft require an approved maintenance program:

  • Time-based inspections;

  • Flight hour based inspections.

401.09.04: Aviation Occurrences

• Report all occurrences associated with aircraft operation to prevent future incidents.

401.09.05: Flight Planning and Itineraries

• Flight plans are required for VFR operating 25 NM away from the point of departure or when leaving Canada.

401.09.06: Arrival Reports

• Upon landing, file arrival report with the appropriate command centers, marking essential flight details.

408: Aeromedical Factors

408.01: Hypoxia

• Definition: A condition where body cells lack sufficient oxygen.

  • Types of Hypoxia:

  • Hypoxic Hypoxia: Inadequate oxygen.

  • Anemic Hypoxia: Reduced blood cells to transport oxygen.

  • Stagnant Hypoxia: Blood circulation issues.

  • Histotoxic Hypoxia: Chemical interference inhibiting oxygen utilization.

• Impacts include visual impairments, impaired judgment, physical mobility, unconsciousness, and potentially death.

• Symptoms that might suggest hypoxia: dizziness, euphoria, or tingling sensations.

• Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC) varies with altitude exposure, the higher the altitude, the quicker the effects.

408.02: Hyperventilation

• Characterization: Rapid, shallow breathing causing reduction of carbon dioxide.

408.03: Gas Expansion Effects

• Boyle's Law applies to gas expansion under varying pressures affecting eardrums and teeth.

408.04: Decompression Sickness

• Symptoms: Vary from joint pain to neurological disturbances based on nitrogen bubbles forming in blood at high altitudes.

• Treatment: Requires pressure chamber access and monitored recovery.

408.05: Visual and Spatial Disorientation

• Defined concepts importantly factor into flying performance and safety.

404: The Parts of an Aircraft

404.01.01: Structure Components

• Fuselage: The main body of the aircraft, encompassing the cockpit.

• Wings: Various types including monoplanes and biplanes.

• Empennage: Tail section to ensure stability.

• Landing Gear: Structures absorbing shock during landing operations.

• Propulsion System: Generates thrust with engines and propellers to maintain flight.

404.01.02: Types of Fuselage Construction

• Three primary types:

  • Truss Construction

  • Monocoque Construction

  • Semi-monocoque Construction

• Composite construction utilizes diverse materials to enhance efficiency.

404.01.03: Wing Dynamics

• Wing Anatomy: Roots, tips, leading edges, trailing edges and their roles in dynamics.

• Various wing configurations and structural components including ailerons and flaps are critical for maneuverability.

404.01.04: Empennage Design

• Key Elements: Vertical stabilizer (fin), Horizontal stabilizer (tail)

• Control Surfaces: Rudder and elevator functions.

405: Theory of Flight

• Aircraft Definition: Capable of flight due to aerodynamic reactions.

405.01.01: Lift & Flight Dynamics

• Lift versus Drag: Critical factors in maintaining efficient flight.

405.02: Forces Impacting Aircraft Stability

• Newton’s laws described throughout aviation contexts to elucidate air movement.

405.03: Lift Dynamics

• Bernoulli's theorem applied in aviation explaining lift and airflow.

405.04: Stability and Control

• Systematic Stability: Defined under longitudinal, lateral, and directional axes providing aircraft balance principles.

405.05: Stalls and Spins

• Mechanics behind stalls and preventative measures outlined.

405.06: Secondary Controls

• Trim, Flaps and Ailerons effects on aircraft handling.

405.07: Spins and Other Uncontrolled Flight Dynamics

• Defined characteristics of spins and respective recovery strategies documented.

403: Meteorology Overview

403.01: Atmospheric Composition

• The various layers, temperatures, and influences in weather conditions are elaborated upon.

403.02: Stability Impacts on Flight

• Atmospheric heating and cooling factors dictate aviation strategy and safety.

403.03: Cloud Classifications

403.03.01: Classification Overview

• The types of clouds including their heights explained while correlating effects on flying conditions.

403.04: Winds and Surface Parameters

403.04.01: Pressure Gradient Influence

• The effects of pressure gradients on wind patterns discussed alongside specific forces acting upon airflow.