Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Life and Context
Rousseau was born in 1712 in Geneva, Switzerland and passed in 1778 in Paris while hiding.
Family Background:
His wealthy mother died during childbirth, leading to a challenging upbringing.
His father trained him as an engraver but was described as a harsh taskmaster.
Life Journey:
Escaped to Italy, converted to Catholicism, and took up a position in the home of a wealthy widow.
Moved to Paris in 1742, traveled back and forth between Italy and Paris, where he engaged with prominent French Enlightenment philosophers.
Served as a secretary to a member of the French aristocracy and fell in love with a hotel maid, resulting in five children who were placed in an orphanage for care.
From 1752 to 1762, he returned to Geneva, re-embraced Protestantism, granting him citizenship.
Major Works:
1755: "Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men" - brings Rousseau fame but is banned from both France and Geneva due to its controversial ideas.
1762: "The Social Contract" - further explores the concepts of political philosophy and civil society.
Historical Context
Continental Europe in the 18th Century:
Notable growth in mercantile activities overshadowing polis (city-states), indicating a shift in social structures and economic practices.
Rousseau expresses sorrow over the commercialization of life.
Products like tobacco, tea, coffee, and sugar became integral parts of European society, reflecting changing consumption patterns.
Historical reference: Louis XIV of France symbolizes the pinnacle of monarchical power and the sociopolitical milieu Rousseau critiques.
Philosophical Perspectives
Rousseau as the Early Romantic:
He emphasizes the importance of examining the simplest operations of the human soul, focusing on elements of feeling and intuition beyond pure reason.
He identifies two fundamental principles shaping human souls:
Self-preservation - the innate drive to survive.
Compassion for the suffering of others - demonstrating an innate social sensibility.
Theories on Inequality
Savage Man vs. Civilized Man:
Describes the savage man as strong, agile, equipped with acute sensory perceptions (sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch).
The savage man's existence is grounded in the present, focusing solely on survival, and indifferent to societal judgment.
In contrast, civilized humans are portrayed as:
"Weak, timid, and servile" deriving from a loss of instincts, with sensory perceptions dulled.
Consumed by desires, envy, and an incessant quest for self-improvement, constantly worried about societal perception
Types of Inequalities:
Distinction between natural/physical inequalities (innate attributes like strength and health) versus moral/political/contrived inequalities (those constructed through social contracts and laws).
Commentary on Society's Development
Devaluation of Local Farmers:
Rousseau argues that as industry and arts flourish, farmers feel devalued, leading to:
A condition where farmers, burdened by taxes required to support luxuries enjoyed by others, abandon their fields to seek work in cities.
Quotation from Rousseau: "To the degree that industry and the arts spread and flourish, the scorned farmer, burdened with the taxes… abandons his fields to go into the cities and seek the bread that he ought to be bringing there" (p. 18, n3).
Political Implications of Private Property
Rousseau's Critique on Private Property:
Proposes that the original fence-posting or claiming of land by an individual was the genesis of civil society, fundamentally altering human relations.
Questions the legitimacy of claims to property: "The first man who, having fenced off…" indicates a critical view on the evolution of self-interest and personal ownership.
Reflects on how this has led to numerous public crises, wars, and miseries.
Suggests hypothetical outcomes had society recognized that "the fruits of the earth belong to all and that the earth belongs to no one."
Position on self-interest: asserts that it fosters a tolerance toward inequality and the acceptance of governmental tyranny, where "domination becomes more dear to them than independence."
People end up focusing more on subordinate relations rather than evaluating their leaders or authority.
Quotation from Rousseau: "they pay more attention to ‘what is below them than to what is above’" (p. 52).
Historical Context of Rousseau’s Work
Continental Europe in the 18th Century:
Notable growth in mercantile activities, overshadowing polis (city-states), indicating a shift in social structures and economic practices.
Rousseau expresses sorrow over the commercialization of life.
Products like tobacco, tea, coffee, and sugar became integral parts of European society, reflecting changing consumption patterns.
Louis XIV of France symbolizes the pinnacle of monarchical power and the sociopolitical milieu Rousseau critiques.
Views on Human Nature
Rousseau emphasizes the importance of examining the simplest operations of the human soul, focusing on elements of feeling and intuition beyond pure reason.
He identifies two fundamental principles shaping human souls:
Self-preservation - the innate drive to survive.
Compassion for the suffering of others - demonstrating an innate social sensibility.
The State of Nature
Represented by the "Savage Man," described as strong, agile, equipped with acute sensory perceptions (sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch).
The savage man's existence is grounded in the present, focusing solely on survival, and indifferent to societal judgment.
This contrasts with civilized humans, who are portrayed as "weak, timid, and servile," deriving from a loss of instincts and dulled sensory perceptions.
The Nature/Role of the State/Sovereignty
Explored in his work, "The Social Contract."
Rousseau critiques private property as the genesis of civil society, fundamentally altering human relations and leading to numerous public crises, wars, and miseries.
Self-interest fostered by society leads to a tolerance toward inequality and the acceptance of governmental tyranny, making "domination more dear to them than independence."
People end up focusing more on subordinate relations rather than evaluating their leaders or authority.
Views of Society/Social Groups
Civilized humans are consumed by desires, envy, and an incessant quest for self-improvement, constantly worried about societal perception.
Society leads to the devaluation of local farmers: as industry and arts flourish, farmers are burdened by taxes required to support luxuries enjoyed by others, causing them to abandon their fields to seek work in cities.
Interdependency vs. Self-Sufficiency
Self-sufficiency: Embodied by the savage man, who focuses solely on survival and is indifferent to societal judgment.
Interdependency: Characterizes civilized humans, who are consumed by desires, envy, and a quest for self-improvement, constantly worried about societal perception. The shift of farmers to cities to seek work also reflects growing economic interdependency.
Pre-Market vs. Market Exchange
Pre-market: Implied by the earlier state of the savage man, focused on direct survival and natural resources.
Market Exchange: Evident in the notable growth of mercantile activities and the commercialization of life that Rousseau critiques. Products like tobacco, tea, coffee, and sugar became integral parts of European society. Farmers abandoning their fields to seek work in cities for "bread" signifies a shift towards a market-based economy.
Self-Interest vs. The Public Good/The Common Good/Views of Justice
Rousseau's critique of private property highlights self-interest, arguing that the idea of claiming land leads to public crises, wars, and miseries.
He suggests hypothetical outcomes had society recognized that "the fruits of the earth belong to all and that the earth belongs to no one," reflecting an ideal of the common good.
Self-interest is seen as fostering a tolerance toward inequality and the acceptance of governmental tyranny, where people prioritize "what is below them than to what is above" rather than the collective good.
Reason/Rationality
Rousseau emphasizes examining the simplest operations of the human soul, focusing on elements of feeling and intuition beyond pure reason, suggesting a prioritization of emotional and intuitive understanding over strict rationality alone.
Freedom/Liberty
Rousseau argues that self-interest in society can lead people to value "domination… more dear to them than independence," implying a loss or sacrifice of true freedom.
Property/Wealth Acquisition
Proposes that the original fence-posting or claiming of land was the genesis of civil society, critically viewing the evolution of self-interest and personal ownership.
He questions the legitimacy of claims to property, holding that this has led to numerous public crises and miseries.
He suggests an alternative: "the fruits of the earth belong to all and that the earth belongs to no one."
Labor/The Division of Labor
Rousseau notes the devaluation of local farmers as industry and arts flourish.
Farmers, burdened by taxes, abandon their fields to seek work in cities, indicating a shift in labor patterns and a nascent division of labor between agricultural and urban/industrial work.
Poverty and Wealth, or Equality/Inequality
"Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men" is a key work.
He distinguishes between natural/physical inequalities (innate attributes) versus moral/political/contrived inequalities (socially constructed).
Civilized humans are consumed by desires, envy, and an incessant quest for self-improvement, often driven by comparisons and creating further inequality.
Farmers burdened by taxes highlight economic disparity and the impact of wealth distribution.
Self-interest is asserted to foster a tolerance toward inequality.
Redistribution/Taxation/Government Spending
Rousseau mentions farmers being "burdened with the taxes required to support luxuries enjoyed by others," indicating a direct critique of how taxation systems can lead to an unequal distribution of financial burden and benefits, rather than a just redistribution.
Markets, Money, Value, and Prices
The 18th century saw notable growth in mercantile activities and the commercialization of life, which Rousseau views with sorrow.
Products like tobacco, tea, coffee, and sugar became integral parts of European society, reflecting developing markets.
Farmers abandoning their fields to seek "bread" in cities signifies a move towards a market economy where labor is exchanged for monetary or exchanged goods.
Monopolies, “Combinations”
These specific concepts are not explicitly mentioned in the provided notes.