Study Notes on the History and Structure of American Law Enforcement

Housekeeping

  • Reminder to finish reading Chapter 5 for the next class.

Introduction to Criminal Justice: Chapter 5 - History and Structure of American Law Enforcement

Importance of Studying Police History

  • Understanding history of policing is crucial for several reasons:
    • Highlight Change: Illustrates how law enforcement has evolved.
    • Contextualize Problems: Helps put current issues in perspective by understanding their origins.
    • Assess Reforms: Evaluates which reforms have been successful.
    • Identify Unintended Consequences: Awareness of potential negative outcomes of reforms.
    • Foundation for Modern Policing: To comprehend current policing, it’s essential to know historical roots and the evolution of policing practices.

Historical Overview of Policing

  • There has always been some form of policing throughout history, but early policing significantly differed from modern practices:
    • Babylonian Influence: First known police system in Babylonia (2181 – 2123 BC).
    • Ancient Greece: The concept of "kin-police" was practiced (600 BC).
    • Roman Empire: Established a police force of over 10,000 under Augustus (27 BC – 400 AD).

Policing Eras

  1. English Heritage
  2. Early American Policing (1600 – 1860)
  3. The Political Era (1840 – 1920)
  4. Professionalization/Reform Era (1920 - 1970)
  5. Era of Community Policing (1970 - Present)
English Heritage
  • Post-Norman Conquest of 1066 facilitated the establishment of a communal law enforcement model:
    • Frankpledge System: Community policing structure where villages divided into units of ten families called "tythings".
    • Tythingmen: Appointed man aged 12 or older responsible for crime apprehension. Rewards given for reporting crimes or responding to "hue and cry".
    • Parish Formation: Ten tythings combined to form a parish.
    • Shire Reeve (Sheriff): Appointed by the king, supervised each shire.
    • Justice of the Peace: Supported by the shire reeve and constable.
Early American Policing
  • Adaptation of English policing methods in the 1600s:
    • Sheriff: Responsibilities included apprehending criminals, serving subpoenas, attending court, collecting taxes, and overseeing elections.
    • Constable: Duties involved transporting suspects and witnesses to court, health hazard management, and public service tasks.
    • Night Watch: Tasks included reporting fires, raising the "hue and cry", maintaining street lamps, detaining suspicious individuals, and patrolling.
Modern Police in England
  • Transformation in policing due to:
    • Urbanization: Changes in demographics and community structure.
    • Sir Robert Peel's Contributions:
    • Known as the “father” of modern policing for establishing the London Metropolitan Police in 1829.
    • Introduced principles such as:
      • Crime prevention.
      • Preventative patrol routine.
      • Adoption of military-style structure including uniforms and rank.
The Political Era (1840-1920)
  • Initial reluctance from U.S. citizens toward state-sponsored police forces due to:
    • Establishment of first modern police forces in the 1840s, modeled after London but with distinctions (e.g., New York, Philadelphia).
    • Officers initially did not wear uniforms or carry firearms and were politically affiliated with no formal training.
    • Features of this era:
    • No Job Security: Officers could be dismissed at will, emphasizing political patronage.
    • Large Patrols: Officers walked extensive beats with a broad, multi-functional role.
    • Lack of Supervision: Call boxes emerged only in the late 1800s; leading to significant corruption issues.
Professionalization/Reform Era (1920 - 1970)
  • Progressives called for reform influenced by two main factors:
    • Demand for Professionalism: Increased calls for law enforcement to be recognized as a profession.
    • Technological Advancements: Introduction of innovations bolstered policing effectiveness.
  • Contributions of August Vollmer:
    • Recognized as the “father of Police Professionalism” in America.
    • Authored the 1931 Wickersham Commission Report addressing:
    • Political influences on policing.
    • Leadership and management inadequacies.
    • Issues with recruitment, training, and technological application.
    • Police abuses like coercion of confessions.
  • Reform Agenda Initiatives:
    • Clearly define the police role to focus strictly on law enforcement, distancing from political influences.
    • Establishment of qualified executives and enhanced personnel standards.
  • By the 1930s, reform themes included:
    • Centralization and standardization in policy development.
    • Focus on education, merit-based selection, and commitment to crime-fighting.
    • Technology Revolution:
    • Widespread deployment of patrol cars since the 1920s improved efficiency.
    • Implementation of two-way radios enabled real-time communication.
    • Telephone access allowed citizens to conveniently connect with police.
Police Crisis: Legacy of the 1960s
  • The professionalization period inadvertently caused various issues:
    • 1960s Police Crisis:
    • Rising crime rates amid public misconceptions about policing effectiveness.
    • The Civil Rights movement highlighted police as symbols of racial injustice.
    • Increased anti-war sentiments and riots prompted investigations into police conduct, like those analyzed by the Kerner Commission noting issues within minority communities.
    • The legitimacy of police was questioned by both minority groups and white youth.
Era of Community Policing (1970 - ??)
  • Introduction of community-oriented policing (COP) and problem-oriented policing (POP):
    • Emphasis on proactive approaches and improved community relations.
    • Encouragement of community involvement in crime prevention and fighting.
    • Leveraging technological advancements to enhance policing.
Current Era of Policing
  • Post-2001 transformation:
    • Community Policing era effectively concluded in 2001.
    • Emergence of the War on Terror and the Era of Homeland Security (2001 – 2014).
    • Continuous challenges leading to a new crisis labeled Police Crisis 2.0 starting in 2014 with events like Ferguson protests, illustrating ongoing policing issues.