Biodiversity and Conservation Notes

CHAPTER 6 BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

6.1 BIODIVERSITY

• Biodiversity is derived from "Bio" (life) and "diversity" (variability).
• The term was coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1985 and popularized by Edward O. Wilson, known as the 'Father of Biodiversity'.
• Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among living organisms and their ecological complexes.
• Defined as the totality of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region.
• Plays a significant role in human life and the natural ecosystem by maintaining ecological balance.

6.1.1 Levels of Biodiversity

• Defined as the degree of variation of life forms in an ecosystem.
• Includes diversity at three levels:
  • Ecosystem diversity
  • Species diversity
  • Genetic diversity

Ecosystem Diversity

• Deals with variations in ecosystems within a geographical location and its impact on human existence and the environment.
• Addresses the combined characteristics of biotic and abiotic properties.
• An ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting together.
• Includes variations in ecological niches, trophic structure, food-webs, and nutrient cycling.
• Ecosystems also show variations with respect to physical parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude, and precipitation.
• Examples include deserts, rainforests, and mangroves.

Species Diversity

• Defined as the number of species and abundance of each species in a particular location.
• The number of species in a community is known as species richness.
• Species diversity considers richness and the evenness of the abundance of different species.
• More species and evenly distributed organisms lead to greater species diversity.
• Coral reefs have high biodiversity, offering many different ecological niches.
• Ecosystems with high species diversity tend to be more stable and resistant to changes.

Genetic Diversity

• Refers to the variety of genetic information contained in plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms.
• Variety of genes within a species.
• Genetic differences between populations of the same species exist because populations may be adapted slightly to different environments.
• Important for providing populations with the ability to adapt to changes in biotic and abiotic factors.

6.1.2 Importance of Biodiversity

• Important for the well-being of our planet, human health, food security, economy, and livelihoods.
• All organisms in an ecosystem live in interdependence, sharing living space, shelter, and available food; affect physical conditions around them.
• Rich biodiversity allows large-scale ecosystems to function and self-regulate.
• Ecosystems are interlinked across the earth; reducing biodiversity in one area can destroy the natural balance elsewhere.
• Healthy ecosystems and rich biodiversity will:
  • Increase ecosystem productivity; each species in an ecosystem has a specific niche which is a role to play
  • Support a larger number of plant species and, therefore, a greater variety of crops
  • Protect fresh water resources
  • Promote soil formation and protection
  • Provide nutrient storage and recycling
  • Aid in breaking down pollutants
  • Contribute to climate stability
  • Speed recovery from natural disasters
  • Provide more food resources
  • Provide more medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs

6.2 BIODIVERSITY IN MYANMAR

• Myanmar is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia with a land area of 676,577 \, km^2.
• Rich in biological diversity due to its size, latitudinal range of 2,100 \, km, and the diversity of its topography and habitats.
• Diverse geographical features and climates, from tropical coral reefs to alpine habitats.
• Forests range from moist tropical rain forests in the south to dry deciduous forests in central areas and temperate broad leaf and alpine forests toward the north.
• The diverse habitats are home for a wide range of species.

6.2.1 Forest Diversity

• Forest ecosystems are a carbon sink and stabilize soils.
• Help regulate the seasonal flow of water downstream and recharge groundwater sources.
• Help maintain the functioning of dam and reservoir infrastructure by impeding the loss of soils.
• Dominant vegetation type in Myanmar.
• Total forest area is 290,410 \, km^2, which is 43% of the total land area; half is closed forest, the other half is open or degraded.
• Rainfall and elevation strongly influence the distribution of different vegetation types.
• Dry forest occurs where rainfall is usually less than 400 \, mm a year and support xerophytic types of vegetation.

6.2.2 Animal Diversity

• Myanmar is home to a diverse range of fauna including:
  • 350 mammal species (including at least 97 bat species)
  • 1,056 bird species
  • 293 reptile species
  • 139 amphibian species
  • 1,147 fish species (522 freshwater fish and 625 marine fish species)
• Home to 331 endangered species including birds, orangutans, elephants, deer, freshwater turtles, pangolins, and tigers.
• Virgin land for animal species diversity; new species are still being discovered.
• Fauna and Flora International (FFI) have discovered no fewer than 100 new species in Myanmar within a single decade.

6.2.3 Threatened Species

• The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes the Red Data Book, which includes the list of threatened species of plants and animals.
• The red data symbolizes the warning signal for those species, which are endangered and if not protected are likely to become extinct in near future.
• Species are classified into one of nine Redlist Categories: Extinct; Extinct in Wild; Critically Endangered; Endangered; Vulnerable; Near Threatened; Least Common; Data Deficient and Not Evaluated.
• Critically Endangered; Endangered; Vulnerable are considered to be threatened with extinction.
• Currently, there are more than 157,100 species on the IUCN Red List, with more than 44,000 species threatened with extinction, including:
  • 41% of amphibians
  • 37% of sharks and rays
  • 36% of reef building corals
  • 34% of conifers
  • 26% of mammals
  • 12% of birds.
• Myanmar is moderately biodiverse; About 250 mammal species, more than 1,000 birds, 370 reptiles and 7,000 plants are recorded and, among them 39 species of mammals, 45 of birds, 21 of reptiles and 38 of plants are globally threatened

Examples of some endangered plant species in Myanmar

1. Scientific Name: Dalbergia oliveri
   • Common Name: Tamalan
   • Myanmar Name: Tamalan
   • IUCN Status: Critically Endangered
2. Scientific Name: Heritiera fomes
   • Common Name: Sunder
   • Myanmar Name: Kanazo
   • IUCN Status: Endangered
3. Scientific Name: Hopea helferi
   • Common Name: Lintah Bukit
   • Myanmar Name: Thingan-net
   • IUCN Status: Endangered
4. Scientific Name: Dipterocarpus alatus
   • Common Name: Guijum tree
   • Myanmar Name: Kanyin
   • IUCN Status: Endangered
5. Scientific Name: Paphiopedilum wardii
   • Common Name: Black Orchid
   • Myanmar Name: Thit- khwa net
   • IUCN Status: Endangered

Examples of some endangered vertebrate species in Myanmar

1. Scientific Name: Geochelone platynota
   • Common Name: Burmese Star Tortoise
   • Myanmar Name: Kyelait
   • IUCN Status: Critically Endangered
2. Scientific Name: Elephas maximus
   • Common Name: Asian Elephant
   • Myanmar Name: Sin
   • IUCN Status: Endangered
3. Scientific Name: Rucervus eldii thamin
   • Common Name: Eld’s Deer
   • Myanmar Name: Shwe Thamin
   • IUCN Status: Endangered
4. Scientific Name: Orcaella brevirostris
   • Common Name: Irrawaddy Dolphin
   • Myanmar Name: Linpai
   • IUCN Status: Endangered
5. Scientific Name: Pavo muticus
   • Common Name: Green Peafowl
   • Myanmar Name: Daun
   • IUCN Status: Endangered

6.3 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

• Biodiversity ensures natural sustainability for all life on the earth, for example, abundant crops and fresh air.
• More than 3 billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity, while more than 1.6 billion people rely on forests for their livelihoods.
• The loss of biodiversity affects the lives of more than 1 billion people living in dry lands.
• Biodiversity is under threat in many aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems as the human population continues to increase and taking more resources from the environment and produce increasing quantities of waste.
• Ecosystems and species are being lost at an alarming rate.
• Five major threats to biodiversity:
  • Habitat loss and degradation
  • Climate change
  • Excessive use of fertilizers and industrial/domestic pollution
  • Overexploitation and unsustainable resource use
  • Effects of invasive alien species on native species, especially endemics

6.3.1 Habitat Destruction

• Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinction.
• The clearing of land for agriculture, housing, transport, leisure facilities, and industry removes vegetation, leading to habitat loss.
• Habitats become divided into small areas, known as habitat fragmentation.
• Factors causing habitat destruction: overpopulation, deforestation, pollution, and global warming.
• Habitat size and number of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.
• Major reasons for habitat destruction:
  • Large scale industrial and commercial activities
  • Mining
  • Cattle rearing
  • Commercial fishing
  • Dam construction
  • Encroaching
  • Plantation cropping and agriculture

Land-use change

• Myanmar is a large agricultural country, but most cultivation employs techniques that can significantly degrade the natural environment.
• For example, shifting cultivation in upland areas, gold mining, urbanization and the clearance of natural forests for agricultural expansion and so on.

Habitat loss

• Habitat loss occurs when natural environments are transformed or modified to serve human needs.
• It is the most significant cause of biodiversity loss globally.
• For example, deforestation, damming rivers and so on.

Threats to biodiversity

• Major threats to biodiversity in Myanmar include hunting, overfishing, forest depletion and degradation, encroachment, forest fires, habitat destruction (which is expected to grow due to increasing urbanization), climate change, introduction of alien invasive species and increasing markets for wildlife and their derivatives in neighboring countries (i.e. illegal trade in wildlife and their products).
• Moreover, factors such as the replacement of local landraces with modem varieties, agricultural area expansion, overgrazing, dams and canal construction and urbanization are major threats to the biodiversity of Myanmar.

Pollution

• Pollution (soil, water or air) is a growing threat on both land and in aquatic ecosystems.
• Pollution is caused by uncontrolled pesticide and herbicide uses, various factory wastes, different kinds of rubbish, human sewage, radioactive materials and industrial wastes.

6.3.2 Invasive Alien Species (IAS)

• Little is known about the status of invasive alien species (IAS) in Myanmar, but a few of them have been observed in the country.
• IAS can also be introduced unintentionally by tourists or through the transport of cargo or movement of pets, plant parts and seeds.
• Some may be intentionally imported for use in research, manufacture of medicine or ornamental and industrial uses.
• Some species of water hyacinth, water lily, canna, kyetsu-kanakho (Jatropha sp), and even some bamboo species, etc can transform into invasive types and became serious threats to the places where they invaded.
• Water hyacinth is invasive species in Myanmar because this species forms dense colonies in the surface of water body, floats of the surface water that block sunlight, reduce water flow and damage the small ponds and streams.
• Among the animal species, no intensive investigation about the IAS in Myanmar.
• There are five prohibited invasive fish species in Myanmar including suckermouth catfish, alligator gar fish and African catfish.

6.3.3 Genetic Pollution

• Genetic pollution indicates the loss of identity of wild plant species as a result of transfer of genes from crop plants, with engineered fitness genes causing special concern.
• However, significant reproductive barriers exist between most wild species and crop plants.
• Gene flow is expected to have its greatest effect on weed species that are closely related to crop plants taxonomically, ecologically and in their reproductive biology.
• The introduction of genetically engineered (GE) organisms into the complex ecosystems of our environment is a dangerous global experiment with nature and evolution.
• Genetic pollution is undesirable gene flow into wild populations.
• The term is usually associated with the gene flow from a genetically engineered (GE) organism (or genetically modified organism - GMO) to a non-GE organism.
• “Genetic pollution” and collateral damage from GE field crops already have begun to wreak environmental havoc.
• Wind, rain, birds, bees, and insect pollinators have begun carrying genetically altered pollen into adjoining fields, polluting the DNA of crops of organic and non-GE farmers.
• Once released, it is virtually impossible to recall genetically engineered organisms back to the laboratory or the field.

6.3.4 Overexploitation

• Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to replenish.
• The term applies to natural resources such as water aquifers, grazing pastures and forests, wild medicinal plants, fish stocks and other wildlife.
• Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish (i.e. fishing) from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally.
• Overfishing can occur in water bodies of any sizes, such as ponds, wetlands, rivers, lakes or oceans, and can result in resource depletion, reduced biological growth rates and low biomass levels.
• Overlogging is a form of overexploitation caused by legal or illegal logging activities that lead to unsustainable or irrecoverable deforestation and permanent habitat destruction for forest wildlife.
• Overhunting threatens one-third of endangered vertebrates, as well as other groups. Excluding edible fish, the illegal trade in wildlife is valued at S10 billion per year.
• As of 2016,301 terrestrial mammals were threatened with extinction due to hunting for bushmeat including primates, even-toed ungulates, bats, diprotodontid marsupials, rodents and carnivores occurring in developing countries.
• Bushmeat provides increased opportunity for transmission of several zoonotic viruses from animal hosts to humans, such as Ebola virus and HIV.

6.3.5 Climate Change

• Climate change is a growing threat to biodiversity.
• It alters the climate patterns and ecosystems in which species have evolved and on which they depend.
• For example, rising ocean temperatures and diminishing Arctic sea ice affects marine biodiversity and can shift vegetation zones, having global implications.
• Overall, climate is a major factor in the distribution of species across the globe; climate change forces them to adjust.
• But many are not able to cope, causing them to become extinct.

6.3.6 Human Overpopulation

• An increase in the world’s population will cause additional strains on resources.
• More people increased demand for food, water, housing, energy, healthcare, transportation, and more.
• And all that consumption contributes to ecological degradation, increased conflicts, and a higher risk of large-scale disasters like pandemics.
• An increase in population will inevitably create pressures leading to more deforestation, decreased biodiversity, and spikes in pollution and emissions, which will exacerbate climate change.
• Ultimately, unless we take action to help minimize further population growth heading into the remainder of this century, many scientists believe the additional stress on the planet will lead to ecological disruption and collapse so severe it threatens the viability of life on Earth, as we know it.

6.3.7 Wildlife Trade

• Wildlife trade refers to the commerce of products that are derived from non-domesticated animals or plants usually extracted from their natural environment or raised under controlled conditions.
• It can involve the trade of living or dead individuals, tissues such as skins, bones, feathers, meat, or other products of wild plants and wild animals.
• Wildlife trade can be differentiated in legal and illegal trade, and both can have domestic (local or national) or international markets that involve products travelling across the world to different countries.
• Illegal wildlife trade contributes directly to the loss of species and habitat destruction, but it also directly and indirectly impacts local communities.
• Recent overexploitation of wildlife for trade has affected countless species for example pangolins, tigers, rhinoceroses, elephants, monkeys and others.
• High demand from expanding illegal wildlife markets in neighboring countries is rapidly threatening the endangered wildlife of Myanmar.
• Poverty and a lack of alternative livelihoods aggravate the situation.
• In wildlife smuggling or trafficking, the products demanded by the trade include exotic pets, food, traditional medicine, clothing, and jewelry made from animals’ tusks, fins, skins, shells, horns, and internal organs.
• Smuggled wildlife is an increasing global demand. Much of demand for rhinoceros’ horns, tiger bones, and other animal products arises out of the practice of traditional Chinese medicine, which uses these ingredients to treat fevers, gout, and other illnesses; maintain good health and longevity; and enhance sexual potency.
• However, the most trafficked animal in the world is the pangolin, accounting for as much as 20% of all illegal wildlife trade. Pangolins are the only scaly mammal on earth. In the last decade, more than one million pangolins were poached and killed for their scales. The pangolin trade is the illegal poaching, trafficking, and sale of pangolins, parts of pangolins, or pangolin- derived products on the black market. The animals are trafficked mainly for their scales, which are believed to be effective in treating a variety of health conditions. Though meat and scales are the primary drivers of the intercontinental pangolin trade, there are also other less common parts and uses. Sun bears are trapped and kept in a cage for extracting bile juice alive. The Chinese tradition believe that the bile juice is truly medically effective for treating certain liver diseases and gall stones. Actually, ursodeoxycholic acid, also known as ursodiol, is one o the acids found in bear bile.
• Wildlife smuggling directly affects the biodiversity of different ecosystems.
• Certain animals are in higher demand by smugglers and leading to a visible decline of these species in their native habitats.
• Wildlife smuggling may also cause the introduction of invasive and harmful species into an ecosystem, which can endanger indigenous wildlife by putting a strain on the environment’s resources through interspecific competition between species.
• Therefore, wildlife trade is a serious conservation problem, has a negative effect on the viability of many wildlife populations and one of the major threats to the survival of vertebrate species.
• The illegal wildlife trade has been linked to the emergence and spread of new infectious diseases in humans, including emergent viruses. Outbreaks of zoonotic diseases including COV1D-19, H5N1 avian flu, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and monkeypox have been traced to live wildlife markets where the potential for zoonotic transmission is greatly increased.
• There are certain places in the world where wildlife trade is particularly threatening or where targeted action would be particularly worthwhile. These places are called ‘wildlife trade hotspots’.
• Therefore, national and international laws are in place for wildlife protection, such as CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna), and Conservation of Biodiversity and Protected Areas Law (2018) in Myanmar.

6.4 CONSERVATION

• Biodiversity is being reduced through human activities such as overexploitation, deforestation, habitat destruction, pollution and as a result of climate change.
• However, many people around the world are working hard to reduce these trends and to conserve the biodiversity we still have. This can be tackled in many different ways.
• Conservation means keeping and protecting a living and changing environment. It is an active process involving an enormous range of projects. In order to keep the beauty and diversity of nature reserves. It is important to manage it effectively. Active intervention is required to restore areas and to protect native species, and sustainable benefits for the present as well as future strategies.

6.4.1 Reasons for Conservation

• Biodiversity is important and should be conserved for its values and benefits to human health and well-beings.

• The followings are the three major reasons to conserve biodiversity:

  1. Narrowly Utilitarian: The useful human products like food, fibres, drugs and medicines are obtained from biodiversity.

  2. Broadly Utilitarian: Biodiversity provides ecosystem services like providing oxygen, pollinating crops and controlling floods, erosions, etc.

  3. Ethical Utilitarian: Every living species has an intrinsic value, though it may not have direct economic value and every species has the right to live.

6.4.2 Conservation Methods

• There are mainly two conservation methods; in situ and ex situ conservation methods.

In situ conservation methods

• In situ methods are the ways of conservation of species which take place in the natural habitat of the organism.

• The best way to conserve any species is to keep it in its natural habitat.

• Maintaining the natural habitat means that all the “life support systems” are provided.

• Nature reserves such as wildlife sanctuary, national park and biosphere reserve help endangered species by maintaining their habitat and genetic diversity, defending the target species from predators and preventing competition from invasive species.

• Keeping these organisms’ in situ means putting them in the ecosystem where they belong.

• As a result of this, the target species can continue to adapt to conditions in the reserve without interference from outside influences.

• Active management of nature reserves involves:

  1. continuous monitoring,

  2. maintenance of effective boundaries

  3. measures to facilitate the successful completion of life cycles and

  4. restocking and reintroducing of once-common species from stocks produced by captive breeding programmes of zoological and botanical gardens.

Ex situ conservation methods

• Ex situ, methods are the ways to conserve animals and plants outside their natural habitats.

• It is not always possible to conserve animal species in the wild because the conditions that have put them under threat of extinction.

• Zoos and wildlife parks used to exist just for people to look at the animals, but today they are very important in animal conservation by ex situ conservation methods. These methods are usually used as a last resort.

• The three methods of ex situ conservation are captive breeding of animals, storage of seeds in the seed bank and cultivation of plants in botanical garden.

  1. Captive breeding

• Endangered species typically have very low population numbers and are in serious danger of becoming extinct.

• For some species whose numbers have dwindled drastically, captive breeding may be their last hope of survival.

• In captive breeding programmes, individuals of an endangered species are bred in zoos and parks in an attempt to save the species from extinction. Usually, the ultimate aim is to reintroduce the captive-bred animals into the wild to restore the original populations. Reintroduction does not always work, but it can programme to be successful in national parks or other protected areas.

• Some techniques used in captive breeding programmes are:

  • Artificial insemination
  • Embryo transfer to a surrogate mother
  • Cryogenics (eggs, sperm cells and embryos can be frozen for future use)
  • Human-raised young
  • Keeping a pedigree (prevent from inbreeding)

• Problems with captive breeding and reintroduction programmes are:

  • not enough space or resources in zoos and parks for all the endangered species
  • difficulty in providing the right conditions for breeding, even if scientists know what those conditions are
  • continuation of the conditions that pushed the species close to extinction
  • animals that have been bred in captivity may have problems adjusting to unsupported life in the wild
  • reintroduction programmes can be very expensive and time consuming and they may be fail
  1. Seed bank

• It has been estimated that 25% of the world’s flowering plant species could disappear within the next 50 years.

• There are thought to be about 242,000 species of flowering plants now, so this would mean 60,500 species disappearing in less than one human lifetime.

• Seed banks have been set up to help conserve rare plant species. Seeds in a seed bank are kept in cold, dark conditions in which the metabolism of the seed slows down so the seed is prevented from germinating.

• Seed banks protect and save plant genetic diversity, which is important for a number of reasons. These saved and viable seeds contain a treasure trove of useful genes that breeders can use for developing improved varieties of our major food crops.

• For example:

  • Improve resistance to current and emerging plant diseases and insects
  • Provide drought or flood tolerance
  • Improve yields and nutrition to feed a growing global population
  1. Botanical garden

• Plants are easily kept in captivity. About 80,000 plant species are grown in private gardens, arboretums and botanical gardens all over the world.

• Botanical gardens also have an important role in the preservation of species necessary for human use and well-being.

• These gardens are good locations for many branches of scientific research. Botanical gardens not only serve as taxonomic and systematic research centers but they play an important role as valuable sources of plant ecology.

• One of the major objectives of botanical gardens is to create and support collections of native taxa, and to build and maintain stocks of plants for ex situ conservation and sustainable utilization of plant resources in the world.

• Botanical gardens are also ideal places to integrate the study and conservation of trees species that are endangered in the wild.

6.4.3 Protected Areas in Myanmar

• Protected areas (PAs) are important tools for biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.

• PAs are safeguard ecosystems and their services, such as water provision, food production, carbon sequestration and climate regulation, thus improving people’s livelihoods. They preserve the integrity of spiritual and cultural values placed by indigenous people on wild areas and offer opportunities of inspiration, study and recreation. In Myanmar, 42 protected areas have been established as following categories:

  • Scientific reserve
  • National park
  • Marine national park
  • Nature reserve
  • Wildlife sanctuary
  • Community forest

Scientific reserve

• Scientific reserve has some similarities to nature reserves.
• They are held for the protection of their features (including flora and fauna) for “scientific study, research, education, and the benefit of the country” e.g., Tanintharyi Nature Reserve.

National park

• A national park is an area set aside by a national government for the preservation of the natural environment.
• It is maintained for biodiversity conservation and representativeness and firm management control.
• No settlement or resource harvesting is allowed. Visitors are permitted e.g., Alaungdawkathapa National Park, Namataung National Park.

Marine national park

• A marine park is a permanent marine reservation for the conservation of species.
• It constitutes an extension, to the undersea world, of the concept of the terrestrial national park.
• It is the same as national park but in marine, island and coastal environments e.g., Lampi Island Marine National Park.

Nature reserve

• Nature reserve is a protected area of importance for flora, fauna, or features of geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for purposes of conservation and to provide special opportunities for study or research e.g., Popa Mountain Park, Hkakaborazi National Park.

Wildlife sanctuary

• A wildlife sanctuary is an area where animal habitats and their surroundings are protected from any sort of disturbance.
• The capturing, killing and poaching of animals is strictly prohibited in these regions.
• They aim at providing a comfortable living to the animals e.g., Hlawga Park, Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary.

Community forest

• In the early 1990s, the Government of Myanmar introduced Community forest (CF) as a way to protect endangered forest resources and support the subsistence needs of rural communities.
• Community forest means all sustainable forest management and utilization activities, in which the local community itself is involved.
• This expression includes establishing new plantations and managing existing forests, creating employment and income opportunities for subsistence to commercial purposes, generating food, stabilizing ecosystems, and improving the environmental conditions.
• Community forests are an important tool for biodiversity conservation and sustainable community-driven development.