Exhaustive Study Guide on Ancient Greek Beliefs, Arts, and Literature
Comparing Historical Points of View
When analyzing historical texts, it is essential to compare different viewpoints by understanding where the pieces of text originate. Identifying important background information about the passage, such as the facts of the author’s life and the specific time and place in which they lived, provides valuable context for their perspective. People’s beliefs and opinions are deeply influenced by the context of the world around them at the time of writing.
Herodotus, a famous Greek historian, provides a specific perspective on the Persian ruler Darius I. He records that Darius I divided his dominions into provinces, which were referred to as satrapies. After dividing the dominions and appointing governors, Darius instructed each group of people to pay him tribute. Herodotus notes that because of this fixing of tribute and other similar ordinances, the Persians developed specific titles for their leaders: they called Darius the ‘merchant,’ Cambyses the ‘master,’ and Cyrus the ‘father.’ The rationale provided is that Darius sought petty profit out of everything, Cambyses was viewed as harsh and arrogant, while Cyrus was seen as merciful and dedicated to the well-being of the people.
Foundations of Greek Religion and Mythology
Ancient Greek religion was characterized by polytheism, which is the worship of many gods or deities. A deity is defined as a being possessing supernatural powers. A distinguishing feature of Greek gods, compared to those of ancient Egypt, was the belief that they looked and behaved like human beings. This human-like portrayal was consistent across Greek art and literature. Greeks expressed their religious beliefs through mythology, a collection of stories regarding their gods and heroes. These tales were powerful and rich, influencing almost all forms of Greek art and literature.
Greek children were raised hearing stories about these deities, such as the myth of Arachne. In this tale, a prideful girl named Arachne boasted that her weaving skills surpassed those of the goddess Athena. Athena challenged her to a competition. Arachne created a tapestry—a cloth featuring pictures—that mocked the gods, which infuriated Athena. As punishment, the goddess transformed the girl into a spider, condemning her to weave webs forever. The Greeks used the story of Arachne as a cautionary tale against the sin of excessive pride.
The Olympian Gods and Goddesses
The Greeks believed in a hierarchy of gods, many of whom resided on Mount Olympus in northern Greece. Zeus was the supreme ruler of the gods, the lord of the sky, and the god of rain and justice. He was known to throw thunderbolts at those who displeased him and was the father of many other gods. His wife, Hera, was the queen of the gods and the goddess of marriage, serving as the protector of married women and their households.
Zeus had two brothers: Poseidon and Hades. Poseidon was the god of the sea, while Hades ruled the underworld, the realm inhabited by the souls of the dead. Other significant deities included Athena, the daughter of Zeus, who was the goddess of wisdom and the protector of cities. She was particularly beloved by the Greeks because she reportedly gave them the gift of the olive tree and served as the guardian of the city of Athens. Apollo was the god of prophecy, music, poetry, and light, while his twin sister, Artemis, was the goddess of hunting and childbirth. Ares served as the god of war, and Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty.
These deities were not distant; the Greeks believed they behaved much like humans. They fell in love, married, had children, celebrated, and played tricks. However, they also experienced human failings such as jealousy and intense rage.
Religion in Everyday Greek Life and Sacred Sites
Religious practice influenced every aspect of Greek life through public and private rituals. Public meetings frequently commenced with prayers and animal sacrifices, and women often held important roles in these ceremonies. Privately, families maintained shrines within their households. Each city-state also built grand temples dedicated to its patron deity, where citizens offered sacrifices on holy days to ask for favors like good health or successful crops.
Athletic contests were another form of religious festival used to honor the gods. The most famous was the Olympic Games, held every years to honor Zeus. During these games, all conflicts and wars between city-states ceased to allow for safe travel and participation. The site at Olympia would become crowded with food sellers, merchants, and artisans. Successful athletes in these games were not rewarded with money but achieved great fame and special privileges.
Specific natural locations were considered sacred, believed to be the homes of gods or spirits. Beyond Mount Olympus, the site of Delphi on the slopes of Mount Parnassus was highly significant. Delphi housed many shrines, the most important being the holy temple of Apollo. This temple was home to the Delphic oracle, a priestess who predicted the future. People from across Greece and foreign lands traveled to Delphi to seek her guidance on future events.
Ancient Greek Arts and Architecture
The Greeks possessed a profound appreciation for beauty, which they integrated into painting, sculpture, and architecture. Even everyday items like vases and jugs were designed with care. While most ancient Greek paintings have been lost to time, surviving written descriptions suggest they were highly realistic, with painters utilizing depth and perspective. Early Greek sculpture was influenced by Egyptian styles, but it evolved into a unique, realistic style that also captured an ‘ideal’ world of calm and peace.
Architecture was inspired by the proportions of the human body, aiming for perfection, balance, and harmony. The Parthenon, a temple built to honor Athena in Athens, is considered the finest example of classical Greek architecture. It was designed by the architects Ictinus and Callicrates, featuring graceful marble columns and sculpture bands depicting gods and humans. Inside, the sculptor Phidias created a massive, glorious statue of Athena. Though these structures and statues appear as white marble today, they were originally painted in vibrant colors, with statues having colored skin, hair, and eyes to make them look startlingly real.
The Evolution of Greek Literature and Drama
Greek literature began with epic poems, such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, attributed to Homer in the late BCE. The Odyssey documents the decade-long struggle of Odysseus to return home to Ithaca following the Trojan War. These epics reflected the belief that gods controlled human destiny. Following Homer, other poets wrote shorter poems meant to be sung to the music of a lyre, leading to the term ‘lyric poetry.’ Notable lyric poets included Pindar, who praised athletes; Alcaeus, who wrote on politics and war; and Sappho, who explored human emotions.
Greek drama, the root of modern Western theater, developed from performances honoring the god Dionysus. Drama literally means a play or performance on stage. Originally, a few actors played roles while a chorus commented on the action. There were two main types of plays: tragedies and comedies. Tragedies, written by dramatists like Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides, often focused on the downfall of heroes in conflict with their families, cities, or gods. Sophocles’ ‘Antigone’ includes a chorus advising that there is no happiness without wisdom and submission to the gods. Comedies, such as those by Aristophanes, ended happily and served as social commentary on Greek culture and politics.
Aesop’s Fables and Moral Instruction
Fables provided another lasting form of Greek literature, designed to teach moral lessons. The most famous were attributed to Aesop, who, according to legend, was a slave on the island of Samos during the BCE. After being freed for his learning, he traveled and collected stories. A well-known example is the story of the tortoise and the hare, which reflects the Greek love of competition. In the story, a hare mocks a slow tortoise and loses a race because he was overconfident and took a nap. The moral of the story is that ‘slow and steady wins the race.’
Questions & Discussion
The following prompts and guiding questions were discussed to analyze the impact of Greek culture and its sources:
How does the inscription about Darius I show the Persian point of view? The inscription highlights how the Persians categorized their rulers based on their economic and social policies, showing they valued mercy and well-being (Cyrus) over profit-driven leadership (Darius).
How did Herodotus’ background as a historian affect his point of view of Darius? As a historian, Herodotus sought to categorize and explain the administrative shifts in the Persian Empire, focusing on the systemic changes like the creation of satrapies and the fixing of tribute.
What effect did religion and mythology have on Greek people and society? Religion was central to both public governance and private life, dictating daily rituals, the design of city-states, and even the cessation of war during the Olympics.
In what ways have Greek art and architecture remained influential today? Modern buildings, such as the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., utilize the same principles of balance, harmony, and marble columns found in the Parthenon.
How does Greek literature continue to influence literature and language today? Words like tragedy, comedy, scene, and drama are all of Greek origin, and the plots and themes established by Homer and the Great Tragedians continue to inspire modern playwrights and authors.