Chapter 7: Detailed Notes on the Roman Empire and Its Artistic Legacy

Overview of the Roman Empire and Geographic Reach

  • The City of Rome and its Capital Status: The Roman Empire began as a relatively small city-state, signified on maps with a star over the city of Rome. Over centuries, it expanded until its geographic peak, encircling the Mediterranean world.

  • Geographic Extent and Population: At its height, the Roman Empire was an enormous multicultural entity. It dominated the Mediterranean population centers, with estimates suggesting that as much as twenty-five percent of the entire world's population resided within its territories.

  • Universal Presence: The saying "Rome is everywhere" reflects the fact that the empire left structural remains across several modern countries, including:

    • England: Locations of Hadrian's Wall.

    • Syria, Egypt, and North Africa: Locations of various Roman cities.

    • Turkey and Western/Eastern Europe: Abundant remains of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and colisseums.

    

The Relationship Between Art and Culture

  • Overarching Theme: Art represents the culture that produces it. Every civilization embeds its dominant values into its artistic visual language.

  • Egyptian Cultural Value (Permanence):

    • Philosophy: The life on earth is short, while the afterlife is eternal. Much of their existence was spent preparing for the afterlife.

    • Artistic Manifestation: Sculptures and "Ka" statues were made from the strongest available stone and kept very compact to ensure they would last forever without breaking.

    

  • Greek Cultural Value (Humanism):

    • Philosophy: This driving force valued the human body and mind, manifesting in the Olympics and democracy.

    • Artistic Manifestation: Naturalism was the goal, which eventually evolved into idealism. Statues were designed to look like perfect human beings.

    

  • Roman Cultural Value (Reverence for the Empire):

    • Philosophy: The most important aspect of life was the advancement of the state. Virtually everything the Romans did served the empire.

    • Artistic Manifestation: Art was utilized as a political tool to promote the empire and its leaders. Romans were likely the most effective civilization in history at using art for this purpose.

    

Foundational History and Origin Myths

  • Veni, Vidi, Vici: This famous Latin phrase meaning "I came, I saw, I conquered" is attributed to Julius Caesar. It was recorded by the historian Plutarch in "Life of Caesar." Caesar uttered this after defeating Pharnaces II at the Battle of Zela (forty-seven BCE), a victory that occurred much faster than anticipated. This captured the Roman focus on expansion and military might.

  • The Legend of Romulus and Remus:

    • Origins: The twins were the semi-divine sons of Mars (the God of War) and a Roman princess (daughter of a king).

    • The Conflict: A jealous uncle kidnapped the infants and threw them into the frozen Tiber River, intending for them to die.

    • Survival: They survived and were found and raised by a female wolf. Romulus eventually founded the city of Rome near Etruscan settlements in seven hundred fifty-three BCE.

    

Territorial Expansion: A Hypothetical Scenario (fifty CE)

  • The Context: In fifty CE, the Roman Army was undefeated and expanding across the Mediterranean.

  • The Dilemma: When the Roman army approached an independent civilization (such as a fictional "Austin-alias"), residents faced a choice: fight or surrender.

    • Fighting the Romans: Choosing to fight resulted in inevitable loss because no one successfully defeated Rome at this peak.

    • Surrendering: A pragmatic but difficult choice, leading to annexation as a subject of the empire.

    

  • Pros of Roman Rule:

    • Standard of Living: Standardized living conditions based on the model of the city of Rome.

    • Security: Military presence provided safety.

    • Engineering and Infrastructure: Access to aqueducts (providing fresh water and better health), planned cities with walls, organized layouts, and connected roads for trade.

    • Entertainment and Economy: Construction of Colosseums and achievement of unprecedented economic prosperity.

    

  • Cons of Roman Rule:

    • Loss of Autonomy: Being ruled by an outside occupying force.

    • Taxation: Residents paid taxes to Rome to fund the infrastructure (aqueducts and roads were not free).

    • Lack of Privilege: Living as a subject without the full rights of Roman citizenship.

    

Chronology of Ancient Rome

Historians subdivide Roman history into five specific periods:

  1. Monarchy (seven hundred fifty-three BCE – five hundred nine BCE): Founded by Romulus. During this time, the Romans were ruled by nearby Latin and Etruscan kings. This period ended when the Romans revolted against King Tarquinius Superbus (often referred to as King Superbus).

  2. Republic (five hundred nine BCE – twenty-seven BCE): A period of nearly five hundred years governed by a bicameral constitutional government consisting of the Senate and Councils.

  3. Early Empire (twenty-seven BCE – ninety-six CE): Began after a civil war following Julius Caesar’s death, involving Mark Antony and Cleopatra on one side and Caesar's great-nephew Augustus on the other. Augustus won and was crowned the first emperor, ending the bicameral government.

  4. High Empire (ninety-six CE – one hundred ninety-two CE): Reached its maximum geographic extent and height of power under emperors like Trajan and Hadrian. Rome was largely unchallenged in the Mediterranean world.

  5. Late Empire (one hundred ninety-two CE – three hundred thirty-seven CE): A pivotal era of decline.

    • Factors of Decay: Declining economy, disintegrating bureaucracy, and a military unable to maintain order on the frontiers.

    • Religious Shift: Official state paganism began losing ground to Christianity.

    

The Evolution of Roman Art and Greek Influence

  • Early Roman Strengths: Initially, Romans were focused on fighting and farming. They lacked sophisticated cultural production and hired Etruscans to create art for them during the Monarchy and Republic periods.

  • Discovery of Greek Art (two hundred eleven BCE): Romans encountered Greek art for the first time and were vastly impressed. They realized that to be a top-tier civilization, they needed the "sound mind in a strong body" balance valued by the Greeks (philosophy, culture, and art).

  • Annexation of Greece (one hundred forty-six BCE): Greece became a Roman province. The Romans appropriated and emulated Greek styles to such an extent that the term "Classical Art" is used to refer to Greek and Roman art together.

  • Differences in Execution:

    • While Romans copied Greek originals (many Greek works we know today only exist as Roman copies), they added practical engineering choices.

    • Supports: Romans added tree trunks or structural supports to marble statues to prevent limbs from breaking. The Greeks avoided this, preferring aesthetics over utilitarian stability, even if it meant the statue's arms might fall off.

    • Comparison: The "Doryphoros" (Spear Bearer) by Polykleitos influenced the statue of "Augustus of Primaporta." Both share the same stance and musculature, but the Roman version is covered in political propaganda.

    

Categories of Roman Artistic and Engineering Achievement

Portraiture

  • Function: A vehicle for wealthy citizens to celebrate themselves and record their lineage.

  • The Patricians: High-ranking Romans used portraits to document their aristocratic membership and strengthen social ties.

  • Coinage: Coins featuring Julius Caesar are key examples of using portraiture to serve personal ambition and the empire's reach.

Engineering Innovations

  • The Arch: While they did not invent it, they perfected its use to build at an massive scale.

  • Concrete: The development of Roman concrete allowed for inexpensive and efficient building.

  • The Pantheon: A revolutionary structure incomparable to any previous architecture.

  • The Colosseum: A massive amphitheater dedicated to entertainment and public morale.

Pompeii and Mount Vesuvius (seventy-nine CE)

  • The Tragedy: Unlike the volcanic eruption at Thera (Santorini), which gave residents warning, the eruption of Vesuvius was a surprise. Most escaped, but thousands were killed as volcanic ash buried the city within sixteen to eighteen hours.

  • Archaeological Value: The city was "frozen in time," providing a comprehensive look at Roman life, including city planning, forums, luxury private homes, and interior decorations.

State Propaganda

  • Political Tools: No government used art more effectively than the Romans. Since they lacked mass media (TV, radio, internet), they installed physical images across the empire.

  • Forms: Arches, columns, and altars advertised the greatness of emperors and advanced political agendas.

The Transition to Late Antiquity

  • The Rise of Christianity: Around the year zero, Jesus of Nazareth was born in the Roman province of Judea. His followers founded a slow-moving but consistent religion.

  • Cultural Shift: The empire transitioned from a millennium of paganism to a Christian empire during the Middle Ages. This transformation is heavily documented in the art of the late period.

  • Long-Term Legacy: Despite the decline starting in the Late Empire, Roman engineering innovations like roads, ports, and aqueducts remain in use or visible today across Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.