BIO STUDYGUIDE

BIOLOGY GUIDE

1 – Exploring Life

1. What is biology? 

2. List and describe the eight characteristics of life.

3. What is the hierarchy of life? List the order and give examples for each.

4. What is the difference between an atom and a cell?

5. How are observations made?

6. What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable?

7. What is the difference between a control group and a constant?

8. Give an example of qualitative data and an example of quantitative data.

3 – Molecules of Cells

9. What is an organic compound?

10. Copy down the chart below and fill it in. Be sure to leave enough space to write ALL the functions of each

macromolecule.

Macromolecule Monomer Function Examples

Carbohydrate

Protein

Lipid

Nucleic Acid

4 – Tour of the Cell

11. Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

12. Compare plant, animal and fungal cells.

13. Explain the function of the following organelles, especially the role in protein production:

a. Nucleus

b. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

c. Rough endoplasmic reticulum

d. Ribosomes

e. Chloroplast

f. Golgi complex

g. Vesicles

h. Mitochondria

5 – The Working Cell

14. Define the term homeostasis.

15. Describe the structure and function of enzymes.

16. Explain how ATP functions as an energy shuttle by being converted to ADP.

17. Explain how enzymes speed up chemical reactions.

18. Explain how pH, temperature, and concentration affect an enzyme's activity.

6 – How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy

19. What is the overall chemical equation for cellular respiration?

20. What is the purpose of cellular respiration?

21. Recreate the chart below on your answer sheet and fill it in:

Stage Location in Cell Inputs Outputs Net ATP Yield

Glycolysis

Prep Stage

Kreb’s Cycle

Electron Transport

Chain

**make sure to study your cellular respiration diagram

22. What happens during glycolysis?

23. What happens during the Kreb’s cycle?

24. What happens during the electron transport chain?

25. What is the difference between “anaerobic” and “aerobic”?

26. Which part(s) of cellular respiration can occur without oxygen?

27. What happens after this part if no oxygen is present?

28. Name one advantage and one disadvantage of fermentation.

29. Describe the difference between lactic acid fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.

B-LS1-5

Performance Expectation: Use a model to illustrate how photosynthesis transforms light energy into stored

chemical energy.

7 – Photosynthesis

30. How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration related?

31. Why is accurate to say that life on Earth is solar-powered?

32. What is the overall chemical equation for photosynthesis?

33. Recreate the chart below on your answer sheet and fill it in:

Stage Location Inputs Outputs

Light Reactions

Calvin Cycle

** Be sure to review the diagrams on pages 206 and 207 in the textbook.

34. What happens during the light-dependent reactions?

35. What happens during the Calvin cycle or light-independent reactions?

B-LS1-4

Performance Expectation: Use a model to illustrate the role of cellular division (mitosis)

and differentiation in producing, and maintaining, complex organisms.

8 – Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance

36. Describe the process of differentiation.

37. Describe the phases and checkpoints in interphase (G1, S, and G2).

38. Describe the purpose of mitosis.

39. Draw a picture showing the steps of mitosis and describe what happens in each.

40. Describe cytokinesis, including when it occurs and the difference between cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.

41. What is the purpose of meiosis?

42. Define the following terms: gametes, fertilization, diploid, and haploid

43. What occurs during asexual reproduction?

44. Draw a picture showing the steps of meiosis I and II and describe what happens in each.

Heredity – Inheritance and Variation of Traits

B-LS3-2

Performance Expectation: Make and defend a claim based on evidence that inheritable genetic variations may

result from (1) new genetic combination through meiosis, (2) viable errors occurring during replication, and/or (3)

mutations caused by environmental factors.

9 – Patterns of Inheritance

45. Define and distinguish between the following pairs of terms:

a) homozygous and heterozygous

b) dominant allele and recessive allele

c) genotype and phenotype

46. Use this information for the following questions: Pea plants have different flower colors, as well as different

seed colors and seed shapes. Purple flowers (F) are dominant to white flowers (f). Yellow seeds (G) are

dominant to green seeds (g). Round seeds (R) are dominant to wrinkled seeds (r).

a) Draw a Punnett square to show the monohybrid cross between a plant that is homozygous dominant for

flower color and a plant that is homozygous recessive for flower color. What are the possible

phenotypes of the offspring?

b) Draw a Punnett square to show the dihybrid cross between two plants that are heterozygous for seed

color and seed shape.

47. Describe the inheritance patterns of incomplete dominance, multiple alleles, codominance, and polygenic

inheritance. Provide examples of each.

48. Explain the chromosomal basis of the laws of segregation and independent assortment.

49. Explain how gender is genetically determined in humans.

50. What are sex-linked genes?

51. What is a pedigree?

52. Draw a key showing what circles, squares, shaded, and non-shaded items mean in a pedigree.

53. Draw a pedigree for an autosomal recessive trait.

54. Draw a pedigree for an autosomal dominant trait.

55. Draw a pedigree showing a recessive sex-linked trait.

10 – Molecular Biology of the Gene

56. What is the difference between DNA, chromosomes, and genes?

57. Draw a diagram of DNA and label the following parts: nucleotide, nitrogenous base, five-carbon sugar,

phosphate group, sugar-phosphate backbone.

58. Create a Venn diagram to compare DNA and RNA using the following characteristics: nitrogenous bases, sugars,

phosphates, function, shape, complementary base pairing, backbone, location in cell.

59. Describe why we say that DNA replication is semi-conservative.

60. Describe the steps involved in DNA replication.

61. What is mRNA? What is tRNA?

62. Describe the three main steps of transcription. Be sure to include the following words: DNA, mRNA , RNA

polymerase, nucleus.

63. Describe the three main steps of translation. Be sure to include the following words: mRNA, ribosome,

cytoplasm, tRNA, codon, anticodon, start codon, stop codon, amino acid, protein.

11 – How Genes are Controlled

64. Describe what happens when the cell cycle is unregulated?

65. What is the difference between a benign and malignant tumor?

66. What is a mutation?

67. What happens if the mutation is in a body cell (somatic cell)?

68. What happens if the mutation is in a sex cell (gamete)?

69. Describe the difference between a gene mutation and chromosomal mutation.

70. Can a mutation ever be beneficial?

71. Describe the following types of point mutations: substitution, addition, removal of a single nucleotide

72. What are stem cells?

73. Where the stem cells located in plants?

74. Where are adult stem cells located?

75. What are embryonic stem cells and how are they different from adult stem cells?

76. How can we use stem cells for cell-based regenerative therapies?

77. What are the pros and cons for cell-based therapies using embryonic and adult stem cells?

12 – DNA Technology and Genomics

78. What is biotechnology?

79. What is genetic engineering?

80. Describe the following techniques used to manipulate DNA: restriction enzymes, gel electrophoresis, DNA

fingerprinting, and plasmids/recombinant DNA

Evolution and Ecosystem Dynamics

B-LS4-2

Performance Expectation: Construct an explanation based on evidence that the process of evolution primarily

results from four factors: (1) the potential for a species to increase in number, (2) the heritable genetic variation of

individuals in a species due to mutation and sexual reproduction; (3) competition for limited resources, and (4) the

proliferation of those organisms that are better able to survive and reproduce in the environment.

13 – How Populations Evolve

81. What is biological evolution?

82. Describe how each of the following fields have contributed scientific evidence for the theory of evolution:

anatomy, embryology, biochemistry, paleontology

83. Describe the process of natural selection.

84. How does natural selection differ from artificial selection?

85. Describe each of the following conditions that must be in place for natural selection to occur: overproduction of

offspring, variation, adaptation, and descent with modification.

86. What are some advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction in terms of evolution?

87. What is a gene pool?

88. Describe the following factors that influence genetic variability within a population: non-random mating,

mutations, and natural selection

14– Origin of Species and Tracing Evolutionary History

89. Describe the difference between microevolution and macroevolution.

90. What is a species according to the biological species concept?

91. What is speciation?

92. Describe the following patterns of macroevolution: adaptive radiation/divergent evolution, coevolution,

extinction

93. What is phylogeny?

94. How can we use anatomy, embryology, and paleontology to construct phylogenetic trees?

15 – The Biosphere

95. Define the different levels within ecosystems including organism, population, community, and ecosystem. Give

an example of each.

96. Distinguish between the biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem and give three examples of each.

16 – Behavioral Adaptations and Population Ecology

97. What is the difference between population density and population distribution?

98. Describe and compare the exponential and logistic population growth models, and illustrate both by recreating

and labeling the graph below.

99. Explain the concept of carrying capacity and label it on the graph above.

100. Describe density-dependent limiting factors and density-independent limiting factors that regulate

growth in natural populations.

17 – Community and Ecosystem Ecology and Conservation Biology

122. Describe the differences between how energy and matter flow through an ecosystem.

123. Describe the major steps of the carbon cycle and include the following processes: photosynthesis, respiration,

decomposition, conversion, combustion

124. How are human activities such as increasing CO2 levels affecting the carbon cycle?

125. What is the greenhouse effect?

126. How do ecosystems maintain homeostasis or stability?

127. What is the difference between resistance and resilience in an ecosystem?

128. What human activities are causing changes to ecosystems?

129. Describe ecological succession.

130. What is the difference between primary succession and secondary succession?

131. What is a pioneer species?

132. What is biological diversity?

133. What threats are there to biological diversity?

134. What is the process of ecological restoration?

🌱 Biology Study Guide (online version)

1. What is biology?
Biology is the scientific study of life. It includes everything from tiny cells and bacteria to large organisms like plants, animals, and humans, and how they interact with their environment.

2. Eight Characteristics of Life (explained):

• Made of cells: All living things are made of one or more cells, which are the basic unit of life.

• Reproduction: Living organisms can reproduce to make more of their species (sexual or asexual).

• Based on DNA: DNA carries genetic instructions that determine traits.

• Growth and development: Living things grow and develop based on specific instructions coded in DNA.

• Use energy (metabolism): All organisms need energy to survive (ex: eating, photosynthesis).

• Respond to stimuli: Living things react to changes in their environment (light, temperature, etc.).

• Maintain homeostasis: They keep internal conditions stable (like body temperature).

• Evolve over time: Populations change over generations through evolution.

3. Hierarchy of Life (small → large):

• Atom (carbon atom)

• Molecule (water)

• Organelle (mitochondria)

• Cell (muscle cell)

• Tissue (muscle tissue)

• Organ (heart)

• Organ system (circulatory system)

• Organism (human)

This shows how simple parts build into complex living systems.

4. Atom vs Cell:

• An atom is the smallest unit of matter (like carbon or oxygen).

• A cell is the smallest unit that can carry out all life functions.

5. Observations:
Observations are made using senses (seeing, smelling, touching) or tools (microscopes, rulers).

• Qualitative: descriptive (color, shape)

• Quantitative: numerical (height, mass)

6. Independent vs Dependent Variable:

• Independent variable = what you change in an experiment

• Dependent variable = what you measure

7. Control Group vs Constants:

• Control group = not exposed to the independent variable, used for comparison

• Constants = all factors kept the same to ensure a fair test

8. Data examples:

• Qualitative: “The plant is green”

• Quantitative: “The plant is 15 cm tall”

3. Molecules of Cells

9. Organic compounds:
Organic compounds are molecules that contain carbon and are found in living things (like sugars, proteins, fats, DNA).

10. Macromolecules (detailed):

4. Tour of the Cell

11. Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic:

• Prokaryotic cells: No nucleus, simpler, smaller (bacteria)

• Eukaryotic cells: Have nucleus and organelles, more complex (plants, animals)

12. Plant vs Animal vs Fungal cells:

• Plant: cell wall, chloroplasts, large vacuole

• Animal: no cell wall, smaller vacuoles

• Fungi: cell wall made of chitin, no chloroplasts

13. Organelles (protein focus):

• Nucleus: stores DNA and controls cell activities

• Rough ER: has ribosomes; builds proteins

• Smooth ER: makes lipids and detoxifies

• Ribosomes: actually assemble proteins

• Golgi apparatus: modifies and packages proteins

• Vesicles: transport materials

• Mitochondria: produce ATP energy

• Chloroplast (plants): photosynthesis

5. The Working Cell

14. Homeostasis:
The ability of an organism to maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes.

15. Enzymes:
Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts, meaning they speed up chemical reactions without being used up.

16. ATP → ADP:
ATP stores energy in its phosphate bonds. When one phosphate is removed, ATP becomes ADP and releases energy the cell can use.

17. How enzymes work:
They lower the activation energy needed for a reaction, making reactions happen faster.

18. Factors affecting enzymes:

• Temperature: too high = enzyme denatures

• pH: enzymes work best at specific pH

• Concentration: more substrate = faster reaction (up to a point)

6. Cellular Respiration

19. Equation:
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + ATP (energy)

20. Purpose:
To convert chemical energy in glucose into ATP, which cells can use.

21–24. Stages explained:

• Glycolysis: breaks glucose into pyruvate (in cytoplasm)

• Prep stage: prepares molecules for Krebs cycle

• Krebs cycle: releases CO₂ and creates energy carriers

• Electron Transport Chain: produces most ATP using oxygen

25–29. Oxygen & fermentation:

• Aerobic: requires oxygen

• Anaerobic: no oxygen

• Without oxygen → fermentation occurs

• Lactic acid fermentation: muscles

• Alcoholic fermentation: yeast

7. Photosynthesis

30. Relationship:
Photosynthesis and respiration are opposites:

• Photosynthesis stores energy

• Respiration releases energy

31. Solar-powered life:
The sun is the original source of energy for almost all ecosystems.

32. Equation:
CO₂ + H₂O + light → glucose + O₂

33–35. Stages:

• Light reactions: capture sunlight → make ATP & O₂

• Calvin cycle: uses ATP to make glucose

8. Cell Division

36. Differentiation:
Cells become specialized for specific jobs.

37. Interphase:

• G1: growth

• S: DNA replication

• G2: preparation

38–40. Mitosis:
Purpose = produce identical cells for growth/repair
Stages: Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase
Then cytokinesis splits the cell

41–44. Meiosis:

• Produces gametes (sperm/egg)

• Reduces chromosome number

• Creates genetic variation

9. Genetics

45. Terms explained:

• Homozygous = same alleles (AA)

• Heterozygous = different (Aa)

• Dominant = shows trait

• Recessive = hidden trait

46. Cross results:

• FF × ff → all purple

• Dihybrid → 9:3:3:1 ratio

47. Complex inheritance:

• Incomplete dominance = blend

• Codominance = both traits show

• Polygenic = many genes

10. DNA & Proteins

56. DNA vs gene vs chromosome:
DNA = molecule
Gene = segment of DNA
Chromosome = tightly packed DNA

59–60. Replication:
DNA copies itself using base pairing (A-T, C-G).
Semi-conservative = each new strand has one old strand.

62–63. Protein synthesis:

• Transcription: DNA → mRNA (in nucleus)

• Translation: mRNA → protein (ribosome uses tRNA)

11. Gene Control

64. Unregulated cell cycle: leads to cancer

65. Tumors:

• Benign = non-spreading

• Malignant = cancerous

66–71. Mutations:
Changes in DNA; can be harmful, helpful, or neutral

12. DNA Technology

78–80. Tools:

• Restriction enzymes cut DNA

• Gel electrophoresis separates DNA

• DNA fingerprinting identifies individuals

• Plasmids carry genes

13–14. Evolution

81. Evolution: change in species over time

83. Natural selection: organisms with beneficial traits survive and reproduce

87. Gene pool: all genes in a population

91. Speciation: formation of new species

15–17. Ecology

95. Levels:
Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem

96. Factors:

• Biotic = living

• Abiotic = nonliving

98. Growth:

• Exponential = rapid growth

• Logistic = levels off

99. Carrying capacity: max population environment can support

122–134. Ecosystems:

• Energy flows, matter cycles

• Carbon cycle moves carbon through Earth

• Greenhouse effect traps heat

• Succession = ecosystem change over time

• Biodiversity = variety of life