AP GOV CHAPTER 4 - CONGRESS

📚 AP GOV CHAPTER 4 — CONGRESS

Detailed Notes + Pictures/Graphs + What They Mean

🏛 4.1 — Congress and Its Powers

Congress

Congress is the Legislative Branch of the federal government. It is created by Article I of the Constitution.

Congress is bicameral, which means it has two chambers:

• House of Representatives

• Senate

Congress's main jobs include:

• Making laws

• Controlling government spending

• Representing citizens and states

• Checking the executive branch through oversight

• Using its constitutional powers to influence national policy

👥 A Tale of Two Congresspeople

What the picture is showing:

The PowerPoint compares María Salazar and Yadira Caraveo, who were both members of the 118th Congress.

• Salazar was a Republican from Florida.

• Caraveo was a Democrat from Colorado.

• Both are daughters of Hispanic immigrants.

• Both had experience outside of Washington.

• Both worked on issues involving immigration and domestic policy.

⭐ Why this matters for AP Gov:

This connects to representation.

Members of Congress can have:

• Different political parties

• Different backgrounds

• Different opinions

• Different states and districts

Even though they are different, they are both responsible for representing their constituents.

🏠 House of Representatives vs. Senate

Important number:

435 = total voting members of the House

100 = total senators

Easy way to remember:

House = population

Senate = states

⚖ Powers of Congress

Expressed/Enumerated Powers

These are powers specifically written in the Constitution.

Examples:

• Tax

• Borrow money

• Regulate interstate commerce

• Declare war

• Coin money

• Establish post offices

Implied Powers

These are powers that are not directly written, but are reasonably connected to Congress's expressed powers.

They come from the:

Necessary and Proper Clause

Also called the Elastic Clause.

It allows Congress to make laws necessary and proper for carrying out its constitutional responsibilities.

⚔ Checks and Balances

Congress can check the other branches.

Congress can:

• Override a presidential veto with a 2/3 vote in both chambers

• Impeach federal officials

• Confirm or reject presidential nominations through the Senate

• Approve treaties through the Senate

• Conduct investigations and oversight

• Control government spending

Impeachment

House of Representatives → impeaches

Senate → holds the impeachment trial

A 2/3 vote in the Senate is needed to convict and remove an official.

🗺 4.2 — Apportionment and Redistricting

Apportionment

Apportionment is the process of dividing the 435 House seats among the states based on population.

The Census happens every 10 years.

Population changes can cause states to:

• Gain House seats

• Lose House seats

• Stay the same

🗺 2020 Census Apportionment

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What this map shows:

The map shows which states gained or lost House seats after the 2020 Census.

• Dark blue = gained 2 seats

• Striped blue = gained 1 seat

• Gray = no change

• Orange = lost 1 seat

For example:

• Texas gained seats.

• Florida gained a seat.

• California lost seats.

• New York lost seats.

• Pennsylvania lost seats.

⭐ What you need to understand:

Population movement changes political representation.

Remember:

Census → Apportionment → Redistricting

The census counts the population.

Apportionment determines how many House seats each state gets.

Redistricting redraws the district boundaries inside states.

✏ Redistricting

Redistricting means redrawing congressional district boundaries.

States usually redraw districts after the census because population changes can make the old districts unequal.

🦎 Gerrymandering

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Gerrymandering

Gerrymandering is drawing voting district boundaries in a way that gives an advantage to a particular group.

Partisan Gerrymandering

Partisan gerrymandering means drawing districts to help one political party.

The weird-looking district in the picture is an example of how districts can be drawn into unusual shapes to benefit a political party.

⭐ Why it matters:

Gerrymandering can create districts that are very safe for one party.

This can contribute to the incumbency advantage because an incumbent may have an easier time winning reelection.

👥 Racial Gerrymandering

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Racial Gerrymandering

This involves drawing district boundaries with the goal of increasing the likelihood that members of a racial or ethnic minority can elect candidates they support.

Majority-Minority District

A majority-minority district is a district where voters from a racial or ethnic minority group make up the electoral majority.

⚖ Shaw v. Reno (1993)

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Shaw v. Reno

Shaw v. Reno (1993) is an important Supreme Court case about racial gerrymandering.

Remember:

Shaw v. Reno → Racial Gerrymandering

The case placed constitutional limits on the use of race when drawing congressional districts.

🗳 Incumbency Advantage

An incumbent is someone who already holds political office.

Incumbents often have advantages when running for reelection.

Why?

They usually have:

• Name recognition

• Experience

• Campaign connections

• Media attention

• Relationships with constituents

• Casework experience

Casework

Casework means helping individual constituents with problems involving the government.

Franking Privilege

The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents without paying normal postage.

🏛 4.3 — Congressional Leadership

House Leadership

Speaker of the House

The Speaker of the House:

• Leads the House

• Helps set the legislative agenda

• Controls important House procedures

• Is usually the most powerful member of the House

Majority Leader

Helps organize the majority party and its legislative goals.

Minority Leader

Leads the minority party.

Whips

Whips:

• Count votes

• Communicate with party members

• Encourage members to support the party's position

📋 Congressional Committees

Committees allow Congress to divide up its huge workload.

There are several types.

Standing Committee

A permanent committee that focuses on a specific policy area.

Examples:

• Agriculture

• Armed Services

• Budget

• Judiciary

• Veterans Affairs

• Foreign Affairs

Joint Committee

Contains members from both the House and Senate.

Conference Committee

Created when the House and Senate pass different versions of the same bill.

Its job is to help create a version that both chambers can agree on.

Select Committee

Usually temporary and created for a specific purpose, such as an investigation.

📋 Standing Committees

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What this table means:

Congress has many different committees that specialize in different areas.

For example:

House

• Agriculture

• Appropriations

• Armed Services

• Budget

• Judiciary

• Transportation and Infrastructure

• Ways and Means

Senate

• Agriculture

• Appropriations

• Armed Services

• Budget

• Finance

• Foreign Relations

• Judiciary

• Veterans Affairs

⭐ Why committees matter:

Congress has hundreds of members and deals with thousands of issues.

Committees allow members to specialize in certain topics.

📝 4.4 — How a Bill Becomes a Law

Basic process:

1. Bill is introduced

A member of Congress introduces a bill.

↓

2. Bill goes to committee

The committee studies the bill.

↓

3. Committee action

Members may hold hearings, make changes, and decide whether to move the bill forward.

↓

4. Floor debate and vote

The House or Senate debates and votes.

↓

5. Other chamber considers it

The other chamber goes through a similar process.

↓

6. Differences are resolved

If the House and Senate passed different versions, they may use a conference committee.

↓

7. President

The president can:

• Sign it

• Veto it

• Take no action

🗣 Filibuster

A filibuster is extended debate in the Senate used to delay or prevent action on a bill.

Cloture

Cloture is the procedure used to end a filibuster.

Important number:

60 senators

Under the Senate rule discussed in the PowerPoint, 60 votes are needed for cloture.

Easy memory:

Filibuster = keep talking/delay

Cloture = stop the debate

📉 Laws Enacted by Congress

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What the graph shows:

The graph shows the number of laws enacted by Congress from 1975–2022.

The number changes a lot over time.

The graph generally shows that Congress has enacted fewer laws in some recent periods compared with some earlier periods.

⭐ Why this matters:

Congress does not always pass laws easily.

Factors such as:

• Partisanship

• Political disagreements

• Divided government

• Filibusters

• Different views in the House and Senate

can make lawmaking harder.

AP Gov connection:

Gridlock = difficulty passing legislation because of political disagreement.

💰 4.5 — Federal Budget

Fiscal Year

The federal government's fiscal year runs from:

October 1 → September 30

Mandatory Spending

Mandatory spending is spending required by existing laws.

Examples include major entitlement programs such as Social Security.

Congress has less short-term flexibility over mandatory spending because changing it often requires changing existing laws.

Discretionary Spending

Discretionary spending is spending that Congress decides on through the annual appropriations process.

📈 Federal Budget Graph

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How to read this graph:

The graph shows the federal budget balance as a percentage of GDP.

Above zero:

Surplus

The government is bringing in more revenue than it spends.

Below zero:

Deficit

The government is spending more money than it receives.

The graph shows that the federal government has experienced many deficits over time.

It also shows a particularly large deficit around 2020 and continued projected deficits.

💵 Deficit vs. Debt

This is VERY important.

Deficit

A deficit happens when:

Government spending > Government revenue

It describes a shortfall during a particular period.

Debt

Debt is the total amount the government owes from accumulated borrowing over time.

Easy way to remember:

Deficit = yearly shortfall

Debt = accumulated total

👵 Social Security

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The picture shows Ida May Fuller, the first person to receive a Social Security benefit.

Her first check was $22.54 in January 1940.

Social Security

Social Security is an entitlement program.

It is funded primarily through payroll taxes.

The PowerPoint discusses concerns about the future of Social Security as the number of people receiving benefits changes compared with the number of workers paying into the system.

Options discussed in the PowerPoint:

1. Raise payroll taxes

2. Raise the age for collecting benefits

3. Change/privatize the system through investments

⭐ AP Gov connection:

Social Security is connected to:

Mandatory spending + entitlement programs + federal budget debates

🥧 Federal Spending

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2022 Federal Budget

According to the PowerPoint:

• 66% = Mandatory spending

• 26% = Discretionary spending

• 8% = Net interest

What the pie chart shows:

The largest part of the federal budget is mandatory spending.

That is important because mandatory spending is difficult to reduce quickly.

Congress would generally need to change the laws that create or control these programs.

⭐ Test tip:

If you see this chart and are asked:

"Which category is the largest?"

➡ Mandatory spending

🏛 4.6 — Representation

Members of Congress have to decide how closely they should follow their constituents.

There are three major models.

👥 Delegate

A delegate votes based on what their constituents want.

Easy way:

Delegate = "I represent what YOU want."

🧠 Trustee

A trustee uses their own judgment to decide what they believe is best.

Easy way:

Trustee = "I use my own judgment."

⚖ Politico

A politico combines the delegate and trustee approaches.

They may:

• Listen to constituents

• Use their own judgment

• Consider their political party

• Consider other political pressures

Easy way:

Politico = balances different pressures.

👤 Descriptive vs. Substantive Representation

Descriptive Representation

This focuses on who the representatives are.

For example:

• Race

• Ethnicity

• Gender

• Background

The Diversity in Congress graph is connected to this concept.

Substantive Representation

This focuses on what representatives actually do for their constituents.

Easy memory:

Descriptive = WHO they are

Substantive = WHAT they do

🟥 Partisanship

Partisanship means strong loyalty to a political party.

Members may vote with their party on many issues.

🚧 Gridlock

Gridlock happens when political disagreement makes it difficult for Congress to pass legislation.

Gridlock can be caused by:

• Partisan disagreement

• Polarization

• Divided government

• House/Senate disagreements

• Senate procedures such as the filibuster

Easy memory:

Gridlock = government gets "stuck."

⭐ CHAPTER 4 — MOST IMPORTANT THINGS TO MEMORIZE

Numbers

435 → House members

100 → Senators

2 years → House term

6 years → Senate term

10 years → Census

60 → Votes needed for cloture under the Senate rule discussed

2/3 → Needed in both chambers to override a presidential veto

Important Terms

Bicameral → Two chambers

Apportionment → Dividing House seats among states

Redistricting → Redrawing district boundaries

Gerrymandering → Drawing districts to create an advantage

Partisan gerrymandering → Helps a political party

Racial gerrymandering → Race is heavily considered in drawing districts

Incumbent → Person currently holding office

Casework → Helping constituents with government problems

Filibuster → Extended Senate debate used to delay/block action

Cloture → Procedure to end a filibuster

Standing committee → Permanent committee

Joint committee → House + Senate members

Conference committee → Resolves differences between House/Senate bills

Select committee → Temporary/special committee

Mandatory spending → Required by existing laws

Discretionary spending → Congress decides through appropriations

Deficit → Spending is greater than revenue

Surplus → Revenue is greater than spending

Debt → Accumulated amount owed

Delegate → Follows constituents

Trustee → Uses own judgment

Politico → Balances different approaches

Descriptive representation → Who representatives are

Substantive representation → What representatives do

Gridlock → Government gets stuck because of disagreement

⚖ COURT CASES TO KNOW

Baker v. Carr (1962)

➡ Connected to representation/apportionment and redistricting

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

➡ Connected to racial gerrymandering

⭐ Biggest visual connections to remember

Diversity graph → Descriptive representation

Census map → Apportionment

Weird district picture → Partisan gerrymandering

North Carolina district map → Racial gerrymandering

Committee table → Congressional committees

Laws graph → Lawmaking/gridlock

Budget graph → Surplus vs. deficit

Social Security picture → Entitlement/mandatory spending

Pie chart → Mandatory vs. discretionary spending