PLSC Final
A failed state = is a state like entity that cannot coerce or is unable to successfully centrall the inhabitants of a given territory.
State = is an entity that relies on coercion and the threat of force to rule in a given territory.
Nation = is a group of people who share some sort of common identity like a language, a religion, an ethnicity, or a shared history.
Nationalism = An ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, or allegiance to a nation or nation- state and holds that such obligations outweigh other individual or group interests.
Nation-state = in which a single nation predominates and the legal, social , demographic, and geographic boundaries of the state are connected in important ways to the nation.
Democracy = A government in which the supreme power is vested in the people or exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodically held free elections.
Autocracy = A system of government where absolute power is held by the ruler, known as the aristocrat.
Dictatorship = A form of government where a single person or small group of people have absolute power and are not held accountable for their actions.
Government = Is the set of people who run the state or have the authority to act on behalf of the state at a particular point in time.
Regime = The set of rules, norms or institutions that determine how the government is constituted, how it's organized, and how major decisions are made
Operationalization = The process by which abstract theoretical concepts are translated into concrete and conservative measures and indicators.
Robert Dahl = A political theorist that states there are two dimensions that help classify political regime; Contestation and Inclusion;.
Contestation = Captures the extent in which citizens are free to organize themselves into competing blocks in order to press for the policies and outcomes they desire.
Inclusion = Has to with who gets to participate in the democratic process.
Continuous measure = Tracking and recording each occurrence of behavior over a specific period of time.
Dichotomous measure = Measurement that only has two possible values that are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
Classic Modernization Theory = argues that countries are more likely to become democratic and stay democratic as they develop economically.
In sum, classic modernization theory predicts that economic development will help both, (a) the emergence of democracy and (b) the survival of democracy.
Traditional Society = A community or culture that is governed by long-standing traditions and customs, and is often resistant to change.
Modern Society = Refers to the social structures, cultural norms, and ways of life that have developed since the late 18th century. Characterized by advancements in technology, urbanization, and changes in social organization.
Survival Story (Przeworski) = Predicts that democracies are more likely to survive as countries develop and become richer but it is not more likely to emerge.
Credible Commitment Problem = A situation where people can't achieve their goals because they can’t make credible promises or threats.
Foreign Aid = Can reduce the dependence of the state on its own citizens. Foreign aid to dictatorships harms the welfare of the average citizen and helps dictators hold on to power.
Primordialist Argument = Treat culture as something that is objective and inherited - something that has been fixed since “primordial times”. Culture existed prior to, and remains unchanged by, political interaction.
Constructivist Argument = Treats culture as something that is constructed or invented rather than inherited. Culture has a causal effect and that a democratic culture is required for democracy to emerge and prosper.
Cultural Modernization Theory = Argues that socioeconomic does not directly cause democracy: instead, economic development produces certain cultural changes, such as emergence of a civic culture and these cultural changes ultimately produce democratic reform.
Constitution of Medina (622 AD) = A document that established a new community, the umman, and outlined the rights and duties of its inhabitants. Protected all citizens regardless of religion and stated that Jews and Muslims can practice their religion freely.
Max Weber = A German sociologist and political economist who related protestantism to capitalism and stated that all responsibilities for corporations need to be delegated to employees to maximize efficiency.
Samuel Huntington = Credited with helping to shape American views on civilian military relations, political development, and comparative government. Wrote clash of civilization.
Clash of Civilizations = A thesis that people’s cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post cold war world. Future wars would be fought not between countries but between cultures.
First Wave of Democratization = Happened between 1825-1925. 33 % of the total number of countries were democracies. Examples: US, Germany, France, UK
Second Wave of Democratization = Happened between 1945 - 1960 after the defeat of Nazi Regime, and the Italian Dictatorship. 31% of the total number of countries were democratic. Examples: Germany, Italy, Japan.
Third Wave of Democratization = 1974 - 1995 with the collapse of the longstand standing dictatorship in Portugal. Dozens of countries across the planet had adopted democracy. 48% of total countries were a Democracy. Examples: Brazil and Chile.
Bottom - Up Transition = Process in which the people rise up to overthrow an authoritarian regime in popular revolution.
Top - Down Transition = Process in which the dictatorial ruling elite introduces liberalizing reforms that ultimately lead to a democratic transition.
External Imposition = A transition in which the external forces imposed democracy.
Collective Action = When a group of people work together to achieve a common goal or objective through organized social or political means.
Free Rider Problem = When people benefit from public good without contributing to its production.
Public Good = Commodities or services that are available to all members of a society are essential to the function of society.
Monarchic dictatorship = An autocracy in which the executive comes to and maintains power on the basis of family and kin networks.
Military dictatorship = An autocracy in which the executive relies on the armed forces to come to and stay in power.
Civilian dictatorship = A form of government where the dictator gains power without the military
Dominant-party dictatorship = One in which a single party dominates access to political office and control over policy through which other parties may exist and compete in elections.
Personalist dictatorship = One in which the leader, although supported by a party or the military, retains personal control of policy decisions and the selections of regime personnel.
Electoral authoritarianism = Means that democratic institutions are imitative and, due to numerous systematic violations of liberal democratic norms, in fact adhere to authoritarian methods.
Dictator’s dilemma = He relies on repression to stay in power, but this repression creates incentive for everyone to falsify their preferences so that the dictator never knows his true level of societal support.
Corruption = Is when public officials take illegal payments in exchange for providing benefits for providing benefits for particular individuals.
Kleptocracy = Is when corruption is organized by political leaders with the goal of personal enrichment.
Selectorate Theory = Characterizes all governments by their location in a two-dimensional institutional space. One dimension is the size of the selectorate and the second dimension is the size of the winning coalition.
The Winning Coalition = Are those whose support translates into victory.
Social Desirability Bias = Refers to the tendency of individuals to overreport “good behavior” and underreport “bad behavior:.
Preference Falsification = The leader never knows the true level of societal support.
Liberalization = The loosening of government controls
When does democratic transition end? = Typically marked by the consolidation of democracy, when democratic institutions, practices, and norms become deeply embedded in society, and when democratic processes are broadly accepted as the legitimate means for governance.
Soft-liners versus hard-liners = Refer to different factions or groups within a political regime or movement. Soft-liners are more open to change, dialogue, and reform.
Hard-liners are resistant to change and seek to maintain or intensify their power through control and repression.
Arab Spring = Wave of pro-democracy protests and uprisings that took place in the Middle East and North Africa beginning in 2010 and 2011, challenging some of the region's entrenched authoritarian regimes
Gorbachev and his role in the fall of the former Soviet Union = After resigning from the presidency, he launched the Gorbachev Foundation, became a vocal critic of Russian presidents Boris Yeltsin and Vladimir Putin, and campaigned for Russia's social-democratic movement.
Protest participation in East Germany = Protests on the streets of Berlin and Leipzig in 1989 forced the East German government to open up the Berlin wall and allow free elections. End result was the reunification of Germany
Why do authoritarian leaders pursue liberalization? = Helps authoritarian leaders maintain control, improve the economy, and manage external pressures.
Presidential Democracy = Is one in which the government does not depend on legislative majority to exist..
Parliamentary Democracy = Is one in which the government depends on a legislative majority to exist and the head of state is not popularly elected to a fixed term.
Semi-Presidential Democracy = is one in which the government depends on a legislative majority to exist and the head of state is popularly elected for a fixed term.
Vote of Confidence = Is a formal procedure in parliamentary systems where elected representatives express that they no longer support the government or a specific leader, typically the prime minister. If the government fails to win the vote, it must resign, and new elections may be called, or a new government must be formed.
Vote of NO Confidence = Is a parliamentary procedure where members of a legislative body express their support for the government, or a specific leader, typically the prime minister. It is the opposite of a vote of no confidence, and it’s used to ensure that the government has the backing of the majority in the legislature.
Principal-Agent (Delegation) Problem = A situation where a principal (like a voter or elected official) delegates authority to an agent (like a bureaucrat or representative) to make decisions on their behalf, but the agent may have different interests and incentives, potentially leading to actions that do not align with the principal's goals, creating a conflict of interest and potential for poor decision-making
Delegation = When a person is selected to represent a group of people in some political assembly of the United States.
Principal = Fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief, behavior, or reasoning.
Agent = Somebody acting in an official capacity on behalf of a Federal or state government.
Prime Minister = The political chief executive and head of the government in a parliamentary democracy.
President = The political chief executive and head of state.
Minority government = Is a government formed by a political party (or coalition) that does not have an absolute majority of seats in the legislature.
Policy-Seeking Politician = A politician that only wants to shape policy.
Office-Seeking Politician = A politician that is interested in the intrinsic benefits of office - wants as much as possible.
Sincere Vote = Refers to a vote cast by an individual that reflects their true preferences or genuine opinion about the candidates or policies on the ballot.
Strategic Vote = Refers to the practice of voting in a way that does not reflect the voter's first-choice candidate, but rather is intended to achieve a more favorable outcome, given the voting system and the likely distribution of votes
Coalition = Refers to a temporary alliance or partnership between different political parties, groups, or factions that come together to achieve a common goal, usually to form a government or to pass specific legislation.
Formateur = Is the person designated to form the government in a parliamentary regime.
Informateur = Examines politically feasible coalitions and nominates a formateur. Someone who is supposed to lack personal political ambition and whose job it is to look at politically feasible coalitions And recommend people who would make good formateurs.
Ministerial Responsibility = Refers to the idea that cabinet ministers should bear ultimate responsibility for what happens in their ministry.
Minimal Winning Coalition = Is one in which there are no parties that are not required to control a legislative majority.
Least Minimal Winning Coalition = Is the MWC with the lowest number of surplus.
Government = Is the set of people who run the state or have the authority to act on behalf of the state at a particular point in time.
Majoritarian Electoral System = Is one in which the candidates or parties that receive the most votes win.
Proportional, or Proportional Representation (PR), Electoral System = Is a type of voting system used to allocate seats in a legislature based on the proportion of votes received by different political parties or candidates.
Single-Member district plurality (SMDP) System = Is one in which individuals cast a single vote for a candidate in a single member district - most votes win.
Alternative Vote = A system of preferential voting. Involves ranking one or more more candidates / parties in which you prefer. If no candidate wins absolute majority, candidates with fewest votes are eliminated and votes are allocated until one candidate has absolute majority.
Two-Round System (TRS) = Candidates are automatically elected in the first round if they obtain a specified level of votes, an absolute majority. If not, a second round of elections takes place. Candidates / parties that won the most votes in the second round are elected.
Single Nontransferable Vote (SNTV) = A system in which voters cast a single candidate - centered vote in a multi member district.
List PR System = A system is a type of proportional representation electoral system where voters cast their ballots for political parties and seats in the legislature are allocated to parties based on the proportion of the vote they receive.
Electoral Formula = Determines how votes are translated into seats.
Quota = Refers to a system or rule that sets a minimum number or percentage of positions, seats, or opportunities that must be filled by individuals from a specific group.
Divisor = Is a number used in various mathematical methods to allocate seats among competing parties or candidates based on the proportion of votes they receive.
District Magnitude = Is the number of representatives elected in a district.
Electoral Threshold = The minimum percentage of votes or number of votes that a party or candidate must receive in order to gain representation or win a seat in an election.
Natural Threshold = The minimum number of votes or percentage of votes needed to win a seat in an electoral system, based purely on the number of seats available and the total votes cast.
Formal or Legal Threshold = Is a set minimum percentage of votes that a party must receive to gain representation in a legislature.
Closed Party List = Is a type of proportional representation voting system where voters choose a party rather than individual candidates.
Open Party List = Is a type of proportional representation voting system where voters can choose both a party and individual candidates within that party's list.
Single Transferable Vote = A proportional representation voting system used to elect multiple representatives from a single electoral district. It allows voters to rank candidates in order of preference rather than just choosing one candidate.
Political Party = Can be thought of as a group of people that includes those who hold office and those who get and keep them there.
Party Systems = Refers to the structure or pattern of political parties in a country or political system, specifically how they are organized and how they interact with each other.
Single-party system = Is one in which only one political party is legally allowed to hold power.
One-party dominant system = Is one in which multiple parties may legally operate but in which only one particular party has a realistic chance of gaining power.
Two-party system = Is one in which only two major political parties have a realistic chance of holding power.
Multiparty system = Is one in which more than two parties have a realistic chance of holding office.
Social Cleavages = Refer to the divisions or fault lines in a society that shape political attitudes, behaviors, and affiliations. These divisions are based on factors such as class, religion, ethnicity, language, region, gender, or ideology, which create distinct social groups that may have differing interests, values, and political preferences.
Urban-rural cleavage = Divisions between urban and rural populations, often relating to differences in economic interests, lifestyle, and political values.
Confessional cleavage = Division based on religious or confessional differences, particularly when different religious groups in a society have distinct political interests, identities, and alignments.
Secular-clerical cleavage = Division between secular (non-religious or pro-separation of church and state) and clerical (religiously oriented) groups or ideologies.
Class cleavage = Divisions between upper, middle, and working classes, often influencing economic policies and political party support.
Post-materialist cleavage = Division that arises from the shift in values in advanced, industrial societies from materialist concerns to post-materialist concern.
Ethnic and linguistic cleavages = Divisions based on ethnicity or religion,
Ethnic parties = Political parties that are formed to represent the interests of a particular ethnic group or community.
Federalism = A political system of government in which power is divided and shared between a central (national) government and regional (state or provincial) governments.
Federal State = Is one in which sovereignty is constitutionally split between atleast 2 territorial levels so that independent governmental units at each level have a final authority on at least 1 policy realm.
Devolution = Occurs when a unitary state grants powers to subnational governments but retains the right to unilaterally recall or reshape those powers.
Decentralization = Refers to the extent in which actual policy making power lies with the central or regional governments in a country. Most political scientists see decentralization as a revenue issue: The greater the share of all tax revenues going to the central government, the less decentralized the state.
Populism = A political approach or ideology that seeks to represent the interests, concerns, and values of ordinary people—often in opposition to the elite, establishment, or political establishment.
Cult of Personality = Refers to a situation where a political leader is elevated to an extraordinary level of reverence, often through mass media, propaganda, and manipulation, to the point where they are seen as a charismatic, infallible figure. This leader's image is typically used to promote and legitimize their rule, and they are often depicted as a symbol of national strength, unity, and ideology.