SUMMARY

1. Functionalist Explanations of Crime and Deviance

Core Functionalist Ideas

• Society is based on value consensus (shared norms and values).

• Institutions work together like organs in a body (organic analogy).

• Crime and deviance are normal, inevitable and functional.

Emile Durkheim

Crime is Functional

1. Boundary Maintenance

• Crime reminds society of acceptable behaviour.

• Punishment reinforces shared norms.

• Strengthens social solidarity.

Example: Public condemnation of criminals reinforces society's values.

2. Social Change

• Deviance can challenge outdated norms.

• Society may eventually accept previously deviant behaviour.

• Leads to gradual social progress.

Example: Changing attitudes towards homosexuality.

3. Safety Valve (Kingsley Davis)

• Minor deviance releases tensions that might otherwise threaten society.

Example: Davis argued prostitution releases sexual tensions.

Anomie - A state of normlessness caused by rapid social change.

Causes

• Industrialisation

• Economic crises

• Social upheaval

Consequences

• Individuals lack clear guidelines.

• Increased deviance and crime.

Evaluation of Durkheim

Strengths

✅ Explains why crime exists in every society.

✅ Recognises positive functions of crime.

Weaknesses

❌ Crime also causes suffering.

❌ Functionalism assumes value consensus exists.

❌ Marxists argue laws benefit the ruling class.

2. Merton's Strain Theory (1938)

Main Idea

American society promotes:

• Wealth

• Success

• Achievement

However:

• Not everyone has equal access to legitimate opportunities.

This creates strain.

Five Adaptations

Innovation

Accept goals but use illegitimate means.

Examples

• Theft

• Fraud

• Robbery

Most associated with crime.

Ritualism

• Abandon success goals.

• Continue following rules.

Retreatism

• Reject goals and means.

• Withdraw from society.

Examples

• Drug addicts

• Homeless people

Rebellion

• Reject existing goals and means.

• Replace them with alternatives.

Examples

• Revolutionaries

• Political extremists

Evaluation of Merton

Strengths

✅ Explains working-class crime.

✅ Links crime to inequality.

Weaknesses

❌ Cannot explain non-utilitarian crime.

❌ Ignores crimes of the wealthy.

❌ Assumes everyone shares success goals.

❌ Doesn't explain why most poor people do not offend.

3. Hirschi's Bonds of Attachment (1969)

People commit crime when social bonds weaken.

Four Bonds

• Attachment

Emotional connections to family and friends.

• Commitment

Investment in education, careers and future goals.

• Involvement

Participation in conventional activities.

• Belief

Acceptance of society's laws and moral values.

Key Idea

Strong bonds = conformity.

Weak bonds = crime.

Evaluation

Strengths

✅ Explains why most people obey rules.

Weaknesses

❌ Many criminals still have strong social bonds.

❌ Does not explain origins of crime.

4. Albert Cohen – Status Frustration (1955)

Working-class boys often fail at school.

They cannot achieve middle-class success.

This causes:

Status Frustration

Feelings of failure and rejection.

Response

They form delinquent subcultures.

These groups invert mainstream values.

Examples

Instead of:

• Hard work

• Achievement

• Respectability

They value:

• Rule breaking

• Rebellion

• Anti-school behaviour

Evaluation

Strengths

✅ Explains youth gangs.

✅ Explains non-utilitarian crime.

Weaknesses

❌ Focuses mainly on boys.

❌ Ignores female offending.

❌ Not all working-class boys offend.

5. Cloward and Ohlin – Differential Opportunity Structures (1960)

Not everyone has access to the same criminal opportunities.

Criminal behaviour depends on available opportunities.

Three Subcultures

Criminal Subculture

• Stable areas.

• Organised crime.

• Young people learn criminal skills.

Conflict Subculture

• Unstable communities.

• Violence and gang conflict.

• Status gained through fighting.

Retreatist Subculture

• "Double failures."

• Failed in both legitimate and criminal worlds.

Examples:

• Drug users

• Addicts

Evaluation

Strengths

✅ Explains different forms of crime.

Weaknesses

❌ Subcultures often overlap.

❌ Limited evidence.

6. Walter Miller – Focal Concerns (1958)Main Idea

Working-class culture contains values that encourage deviance.

Six Focal Concerns

• Toughness Physical strength and masculinity.

• Smartness Ability to outwit others.

• Excitement Seeking thrills and risk.

• Trouble. Acceptance of conflict.

• Fate. Belief that life is controlled by luck.

• Autonomy. Resistance to authority.

Evaluation

Strengths

✅ Explains male working-class crime.

Weaknesses

❌ Stereotypes the working class.

❌ Ignores diversity within working-class communities.

7. Matza – Drift Theory (1964)Main Idea

Most young people are neither fully criminal nor fully conformist.

They drift between both.

Techniques of Neutralisation

Denial of Responsibility

"It wasn't my fault."

Denial of Injury

"No one got hurt."

Denial of the Victim

"They deserved it."

Condemnation of the Condemners

"The police are worse."

Appeal to Higher Loyalties

"I did it for my friends."

Evaluation

Strengths

✅ Explains occasional offending.

Weaknesses

❌ May simply be excuses after committing crime.

Overall Evaluation of Functionalism

Strengths

✅ Explains social order.

✅ Shows how crime may perform functions.

✅ Recognises importance of socialisation.

Weaknesses

Marxist Criticism

• Functionalists ignore power.

• Laws reflect ruling-class interests.

Feminist Criticism

• Focus almost entirely on males.

• Ignore female crime.

Realist Criticism

• Crime has real victims.

• Crime is not necessarily functional.

8. Marxist Explanations of Crime

Key Ideas - Capitalism is Criminogenic

Capitalism encourages crime.

Causes of Crime

Poverty

Working class may offend to survive.

Alienation

Workers become frustrated and powerless.

Consumerism

Pressure to consume encourages crime.

Gordon

Capitalism promotes "dog eat dog" values.

Selective Law Enforcement

Marxists argue:

• Laws are made by ruling class.

• Laws protect ruling-class interests.

• Working-class crime is punished more harshly.

Chambliss (1976)Law Creation

Laws serve ruling-class interests.

Selective Enforcement

Laws applied more harshly to the working class.

Pearce (1976)

Even laws that appear to help workers often benefit capitalism.

White-Collar Crime

Marxists focus on:

• Corporate crime

• State crime

• White-collar crime

Argue these crimes cause more harm than street crime.

Neo-MarxismTaylor, Walton and Young (1973)Fully Social Theory of Deviance

Must consider:

1. Wider origins of deviance

2. Immediate causes

3. Meaning to offender

4. Social reaction

5. Consequences

Stuart Hall et al. (1978)Policing the Crisis

Argued that:

• Economic crisis occurred in Britain.

• Media exaggerated "mugging".

• Black youths became folk devils.

• Moral panic distracted attention from capitalism.

Evaluation of MarxismStrengths

✅ Highlights inequality and power.

✅ Explains selective law enforcement.

✅ Focuses on corporate crime.

Weaknesses

❌ Reductionist (explains everything through class).

❌ Crime exists in socialist societies.

❌ Most victims of crime are working class.

❌ Some laws genuinely benefit everyone.

9. Interactionist ExplanationsBecker (1963) – Labelling TheoryKey Idea

No act is inherently criminal.

Behaviour becomes deviant when labelled as such.

Consequences of Labelling

Negative label

↓

Self-fulfilling prophecy

↓

Deviant identity

↓

Secondary deviance

↓

Deviant career

LemertPrimary Deviance

Minor rule-breaking.

Secondary Deviance

Occurs after labelling.

Person accepts deviant identity.

Cooley – Looking Glass Self

People see themselves through others' reactions.

Labels shape self-identity.

Cicourel (1968)Negotiation of Justice

Police use stereotypes.

"Typical delinquent":

• Young

• Male

• Working class

• Ethnic minority

More likely to be labelled.

Cohen – Folk Devils and Moral PanicsFolk Devils

Groups blamed for social problems.

Examples:

• Mods and Rockers

• Youth gangs

Moral Panic Process

Media exaggeration

↓

Public concern

↓

Political action

↓

More policing

↓

Deviancy amplification

Evaluation of InteractionismStrengths

✅ Explains criminalisation process.

✅ Shows importance of social reaction.

✅ Explains bias in official statistics.

Weaknesses

❌ Ignores causes of primary deviance.

❌ Neglects wider social structures.

❌ Cannot explain why some people offend initially.

10. Realist Explanations

Right RealismMain Idea

Crime is a real social problem.

Focus on reducing crime rather than explaining it.

Broken Windows Theory (Wilson & Kelling)

Visible disorder encourages crime.

Examples

• Graffiti

• Broken windows

• Vandalism

If ignored:

Minor disorder

↓

More disorder

↓

Serious crime

Zero Tolerance Policing

Strict policing of minor offences.

Used in New York in the 1990s.

Evaluation of Right RealismStrengths

✅ Practical crime-reduction policies.

Weaknesses

❌ Correlation ≠ causation.

❌ May target minority groups unfairly.

❌ Over-policing can create tensions.

Left RealismLea and Young (1984)

Crime is a real problem affecting working-class communities.

Causes of CrimeRelative Deprivation

Feeling deprived compared to others.

Marginalisation

Lack of political voice.

Subcultures

Groups develop alternative values.

SolutionsDemocratic Policing

Closer relationship between police and communities.

Community Crime Prevention

Partnerships between agencies and communities.

EvaluationStrengths

✅ Focuses on victims.

✅ Offers realistic solutions.

Weaknesses

❌ Some solutions difficult to implement.

❌ Underestimates wider structural causes.

Quick Sociologist ChecklistFunctionalism

• Durkheim

• Merton

• Hirschi

• Cohen

• Cloward & Ohlin

• Miller

• Matza

Marxism

• Gordon

• Chambliss

• Pearce

• Stuart Hall

• Taylor, Walton & Young

Interactionism

• Becker

• Lemert

• Cooley

• Cicourel

• Cohen

Realism

• Wilson & Kelling

• Lea & Young

1. Crime and Deviance by EthnicityPatterns

• Some ethnic minority groups are overrepresented in crime statistics.

• Black people are disproportionately represented in prison populations.

• Asian groups are generally underrepresented in official crime statistics.

• Ethnic differences appear in:

  • Stop and search

  • Arrest rates

  • Conviction rates

  • Prison population

Are the Statistics Accurate?Official Statistics

• Only record crimes known to police.

• May reflect police activity rather than actual criminality.

• Dark figure of crime = crimes not reported/recorded.

Victim Surveys

• Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW).

• Captures some unreported crime.

• Still depends on memory and honesty.

Self-Report Studies

• Ask people about crimes they have committed.

• Often show smaller ethnic differences than official statistics.

Sociological ExplanationsFunctionalism

• Weak social bonds and educational failure can increase crime.

Marxism

• Ethnic minorities experience economic disadvantage.

• Crime may result from marginalisation and blocked opportunities.

Stuart Hall (1978)

• "Policing the Crisis"

• Argued media and police exaggerated black criminality.

• Created a moral panic around mugging.

Interactionism

• Police stereotypes lead to:

  • Labelling

  • Self-fulfilling prophecy

  • Criminal identity

New Right

• Family breakdown and absent fathers increase risk of crime.

Left Realism

• Relative deprivation

• Marginalisation

• Subculture formation

Institutional RacismMacpherson Report (1999)

• Following Stephen Lawrence murder.

• Defined Metropolitan Police as institutionally racist.

Evidence:

• Higher stop-and-search rates.

• Greater police surveillance of minority groups.

• Possible discrimination throughout criminal justice process.

2. Crime and Deviance by GenderPatterns

• Men commit far more recorded crime than women.

• Around 96% of prisoners are male.

• Men commit most violent crime.

• Women commit proportionately more shoplifting and minor property offences.

Why Do Men Commit More Crime?Sex Role Theory

• Boys socialised into toughness and risk-taking.

• Girls socialised into conformity and caring roles.

Functionalism

• Traditional masculinity encourages aggression and competition.

Subcultural Theory

• Miller: focal concerns of working-class males:

  • Toughness

  • Smartness

  • Excitement

  • Autonomy

Control Theory

• Women traditionally subject to greater social control:

  • Family control

  • Domestic responsibilities

Liberation Thesis (Adler)

• Women's increasing freedom leads to greater offending.

Feminist Criticisms

• Crime theories often focus on men.

• Criminal justice system may be patriarchal.

• Female crime is often underestimated.

Chivalry ThesisPollak

• Criminal justice system treats women more leniently.

• Male judges and police may be sympathetic.

Criticism:

• Not all evidence supports this.

• Women can receive harsher treatment when they break gender norms.

3. Crime and Deviance by Social ClassPatterns

• Working-class people are overrepresented in crime statistics.

• Most prisoners come from deprived backgrounds.

• White-collar crime is underrepresented.

White-Collar CrimeSutherland

• Crimes committed by respectable middle-class people during work.

Examples:

• Fraud

• Tax evasion

• Corporate crime

Why Might Statistics Be Misleading?Marxist View

• Laws reflect ruling-class interests.

• Working-class crime is heavily policed.

• Corporate crime often hidden.

White-Collar Crime Often Goes Undetected

• No clear victim.

• Complex investigations.

• Businesses avoid publicity.

Sociological ExplanationsUnderclass Theory (Murray)

• Welfare dependency.

• Family breakdown.

• Lack of work ethic.

Relative Deprivation

• People compare themselves to others.

• Frustration can encourage crime.

Marginalisation

• Lack of power and opportunities.

Neighbourhood Effects

• High-crime areas normalise offending.

4. Globalisation and CrimeGlobalisation

The increasing interconnectedness of the world.

Global Crime

Examples:

• Cybercrime

• Drug trafficking

• Human trafficking

• Money laundering

• Terrorism

• Tax evasion

ExplanationsGlobal Criminal Economy

• Criminal networks operate across borders.

• Reiner estimated global organised crime worth over £1 trillion annually.

Relative Deprivation

• Global inequality creates frustration and crime.

Cultural Defence

• Fundamentalism can emerge as reaction to globalisation.

Marxist View

• Transnational corporations exploit poorer nations.

• Global capitalism creates opportunities for crime.

5. Media and CrimeMedia as a Cause of CrimeHypodermic Syringe Model

• Media messages directly influence audiences.

Evidence

• Violent games and films may desensitise viewers.

• Learning through imitation.

Evaluation

• Audiences are active, not passive.

• Effects are often exaggerated.

Deviancy AmplificationCohen

1. Event occurs.

2. Media exaggerates threat.

3. Moral panic develops.

4. Increased control.

5. More offending recorded.

Moral PanicFolk Devils

Groups blamed for social problems.

Examples:

• Mods and Rockers

• Young offenders

• Gang members

New Media and Crime

Facilitates:

• Cyberbullying

• Online fraud

• Identity theft

• Cyberterrorism

6. Green CrimeDefinition

Crimes against the environment.

Primary Green Crime

Direct environmental damage:

• Pollution

• Deforestation

• Animal cruelty

Secondary Green Crime

Crimes arising from environmental rules:

• Bribery

• Organised crime avoiding regulations

PerspectivesAnthropocentric

• Human-centred approach.

Ecocentric

• Nature-centred approach.

• Harm to ecosystems matters regardless of human impact.

Evaluation

• Difficult to define.

• Some actions legal but harmful.

• Powerful corporations often escape punishment.

7. Human Rights and State CrimeState Crime

Crimes committed by governments or state agencies.

Examples:

• Torture

• Genocide

• War crimes

• Political repression

Human Rights

Rights protected through:

• UN Declaration of Human Rights

• Human Rights Act (1998)

State Denial (Cohen)Stages

1. It didn't happen.

2. It wasn't as bad as claimed.

3. Victims deserved it.

Example

• Guantanamo Bay detentions.

Why State Crime Occurs

• States possess enormous power.

• Governments can change laws.

• National security used as justification.

8. VictimsVictimisation Patterns

More likely to be victims:

• Young people

• Poor people

• Ethnic minorities

• People in high-crime areas

Positivist Victimology

Focus:

• Victim characteristics

• Repeat victimisation

Victim Blaming

Criticised for suggesting victims contribute to crime.

Critical Victimology (Mawby & Walklate)

Focus:

• Social inequalities

• Power differences

• Structural causes

Victimisation as a Social ConstructionInteractionist View

• Not everyone is recognised as a victim.

• Victim status depends on social definitions.

9. Crime Control and the Criminal Justice System

Police

Consensus View

• Police work for society.

• Maintain order and prevent crime.

Conflict View

• Police serve ruling-class interests.

• Focus on working-class crime.

Police Discretion

Police choose:

• Which crimes to investigate.

• Who to stop and search.

• Whether to arrest.

Types

Individual Discretion

Personal beliefs.

Cultural Discretion

Police occupational culture.

Structural Discretion

Reflects wider inequalities.

10. Surveillance, Prevention and Punishment

Surveillance CCTV

Advantages:

• Deterrence

• Evidence collection

Disadvantages:

• Privacy concerns

• Crime displacement

Foucault

• Panopticon

• People regulate behaviour because they feel watched.

Crime Prevention

Situational Crime Prevention

Makes crime harder.

Examples:

• CCTV

• Burglar alarms

• Security guards

• Target hardening

Evaluation:

• Can displace crime.

• Doesn't address causes.

Environmental Crime Prevention

Designing environments to reduce crime.

Social and Community Crime Prevention

Addresses social causes:

• Education

• Parenting programmes

• Youth projects

Punishment

1. Prevention

Stops future offending.

Deterrence

Fear of punishment prevents crime.

Incapacitation

Prison removes offenders from society.

2. Compensation / RestorationFines

Financial repayment.

Restorative Justice

• Victim and offender meet.

• Repairs harm caused.

3. Retribution"Just Deserts"

Offenders deserve punishment because they caused harm.

Key Sociologists to Remember

• Durkheim – Functionalism, crime is inevitable

• Merton – Strain theory

• Cohen – Moral panic

• Hall et al. – Policing the Crisis

• Stuart Hall – Race and crime

• Miller – Focal concerns

• Adler – Liberation thesis

• Pollak – Chivalry thesis

• Sutherland – White-collar crime

• Murray – Underclass theory

• Mawby & Walklate – Critical victimology

• Foucault – Surveillance/Panopticon

• Cohen – State denial

• Macpherson – Institutional racism

These notes cover the core AO1 content for the Crime and Deviance unit and are suitable as a condensed revision guide before exams.