Unit 7 Notes: States, Principalities, Population Movements, and Interactions in Ethiopia (13th - Mid-16th Century)
The "Solomonic" Dynasty & the Christian Kingdom (CHK)
In 1270, Yekuno-Amlak established the Solomonic Dynasty, claiming descent from the last Aksumite king, Dil Na'od. This claim was linked to the legend of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon. Yekuno Amlak overthrew the Zagwe king Yitbark in 1270, using the Solomonic lineage to legitimize his rule and delegitimize the Zagwe rulers. The claim of descent from King Solomon is legendary and lacks historical proof. The Kibre Negest ("Glory of Kings") in the 14th century explained the legend, stating that Ethiopian rulers must descend from Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon. Ethiopian kings, from Yikuno Amlak to Haile Selassie I, asserted this descent.
Territory of CHK Under Solomonic Dynasty
In 1270, the CHK's territory was limited to Southern Eritrea, Tigray, Lasta, and northern Shewa. Under Yekuno Amlak and his successors, the CHK began expanding from this core territory, encompassing:
The ancient provinces of Aksum and Zagwe in the north.
Gondar and eastern Gojjam in the northwest.
Bizamo and Damot in the southwest.
Gurage lands and the Omotic regions of Wolaita and Gamo in the south.
Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Hadiya, and Bali in the east and southeast.
King Amde-Tsion was the most expansionist of the CHK rulers, initiating a wider and more rapid territorial expansion policy.
Motives and Factors for Expansion
The main motives for the CHK's expansion were economic and political, aiming to control trade routes and territories. Factors that helped Yikuno Amlak seize power included:
The legend of the Queen of Sheba for legitimacy.
Control over the Zeila trade route.
A strong army built with wealth from Zeila trade. This economic strength enabled Yekuno Amlak to build a strong army. His success was based on military, economic, and political power rather than solely on legitimacy.
Features of CHK Under the Solomonic Dynasty
Extensive territorial expansion.
Expansion of trade.
Long periods of conflict and war.
Agriculture and trade were the basis of the economy.
Mobile or roving capital.
The gult system was a predominant economic feature.
Maintained the traditions of Aksum same to Zagwe’s.
They expand Christianity in different directions.
Rulers exercised political and religious powers.
The Church-state relationship reached its peak.
Continued relations with Egypt and the Middle East.
Established relations with Portugal and Spain.
Succession and the Royal Prison
The death of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285 led to instability and power struggles among his descendants. The succession problem was resolved around 1300 during Widim-Ra'ad reign by establishing a royal prison called Amba-Gishen in South Wello. All male royal family members were forced to stay at Amba Gishen, guarded by loyal soldiers. This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's forces in 1540.
Roving Capitals
From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the CHK had no permanent capital. Rulers used mobile courts to govern the vast territory. Lake Haiq (South Wollo) was the first center of the restored dynasty. Capitals shifted southward to Menz, Tegulet, Bulga (northern Shawa), and finally to Yerer and Zequalla in eastern Shawa (near Addis Ababa).
Reasons for roving capitals:
To secure food supplies for the army.
To address firewood shortages.
To control rebellions.
Military strategy was a primary motivation for mobile capitals, which were adapted by:
Moving to food supply areas.
Exploiting current hinterlands.
Using it as a mean of political integration of Ethiopia.
Characteristics of Medieval Capitals
Unpleasant and dirty.
Smelled of animal and human waste.
Experiencing air pollution from burning firewood.
Experiencing water pollution from animal slaughtering.
Deforestation for daily needs.
Administrative System: The Gult System
The state employed a feudal administrative system known as the gult system. Gult was land granted to officials as a salary, giving them the right to collect tribute from peasants (gult right). The gult right was a share of the peasantry's produce given to state officials in return for service. It was a medieval substitute for salary, lasting only as long as the official remained loyal and was not hereditary.
A Bale-gult or gult owner was an official with the right to collect tributes. Peasants were assigned to officials based on their rank in the state hierarchy. Rights of a bale-gult included collecting tributes in kind, using peasant labor, and recruiting a local army. Responsibilities included maintaining law and order in their province.
Advantages of the gult system for the CHK:
Simplified administrative tasks by dividing the empire into smaller units.
Enabled maintaining a large territorial army.
Rist Right
Rist right was a claim to hereditary ownership of land, a communal birthright. The state provided security to rist owners, who were obliged to pay tribute to the state.
Muslim Principalities/Sultanates
Several Muslim sultanates were established along the Long Distance Trade Route (LDTR) after the introduction of Islam to Ethiopia and the Horn. The Zeila trade route was the primary gateway of Islam to Ethiopia, leading to the formation of Muslim states like Ifat, Fatigar, Dawaro, Dara, Bali, Hadya, Arbabini, Sharka, and Adal.
Shewa Muslim Sultanate (897-1285)
The earliest Muslim Sultanate in the region, located in northern Shewa. Ruled by the Makhzumite dynasty of Yemen Arab family. It had poor relations with its neighbors and was destroyed by Ifat in 1285.
Sultanate of Ifat
Emerging in the mid-13th century south of Shewa, founded by Umar Walasma and ruled by the Walasma Dynasty. Ifat destroyed the Makhzumite dynasty in 1285 AD. It was the strongest Muslim Sultanate rivaling the CHK, controlling the Zeila trade route. The dual interest in controlling the Zeila trade caused conflict between CHK and Ifat. Amde Tsion defeated and annexed Ifat in 1332. The Sultanate of Fatagar emerged in the mid-13th century.
Other Sultanates
Dawaro: Located between the Awash River and upper Wabe-Shebele.
Bali: Located south of the Wabe-Shebele.
Dara: Located between Dawaro and Bali.
Arbabini: Located between Dawaro and Hadiya.
Hadiya: Located west of Dawaro and Bali. The date of emergence is unknown but mentioned during Amde Seyon's reign.
Sharaka: Located in present-day Arsi. It became a tributary state of CHK from the 14th to the early 16th century.
Common Characteristics of Muslim Sultanates
Trade was a factor for their rise, development, and livelihood.
Most became tributaries of CHK during King Amde Tsion's reign.
Most emerged along the Zaila trade route.
Most depended on trade.
Sultanate of Adal
One branch of the Walasma family, founded by Walasma rulers at the end of the 14th century. When Amde Tsiyon annexed Ifat in 1332, the Walasma ruling class divided into two groups: the merchant class recognized CHK authority, while the militant class rejected it. The militant group moved to Dakar around the Harar plateau in 1387 and established the Sultanate of Adal. From this center, Adal launched military campaigns against the CHK's frontiers. In 1520, Adal changed its center to Harar. In 1576, they shifted the center from Harar to Awsa due to defeat by CHK in 1543 and Oromo pressure.
Relationship Between CHK and the Sultanate of Adal (1520s-1559)
Causes:
Control or monopolization of the Zaila trade route. Religion was used as an ideological justification.
Desire for territorial expansion. These desires led to wars, portrayed as religious supremacy conflicts in historical accounts.
Maladministration and exploitation of the periphery fueled military mobilization. Religion provided ideological justification for the wars. The interest in monopolizing trade routes was central to the Christian-Muslim conflict. The war culminated from 1529 to 1543. Initially, the Zeila trade route was under the Muslim sultanate of Ifat but Ifat was defeated by Amde Seyon in 1332 and lost its independence.
In the late 14th century, Haqadin II and Sa'adadin retreated to the Harar plateau and resisted against CHK to regain independence and control the Zeila trade route. The start of the conflict marked internal strife, corruption, and anarchy among the Muslim sultanates. This ended with the rise of Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. Imam Ahmed Geragn came from Hubet (between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga). No battle was fought to control Zeila under Imam Ahmed, because of demographic pressure from Afar and Somali pastoralists towards Harar and CHK. He mobilized the Afar, Argoba, Somali, Harla, Harari, and others for a common cause, resolving their needs for grazing land and protecting Islamic beliefs. This earned him the name Imam. He consolidated his army to fight CHK.
In the early 16th century, with assistance from Queen Elleni and internal conflicts in Adal, the CHK under Libene Dingle defeated the Muslim states. Most Muslim Sultanates, including Adal, became tributaries to CHK. In 1520, Imam Ahmed refused to pay tribute and prepared for military confrontation. In 1527, he launched his first campaign against the CHK, controlling Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya, and Kambata.
In 1528, Lebne-Dengel, realizing the threat from Adal, mobilized a large army. However, the CHK failed because of:
I. Logistics problems
II. Lack of effective strategy and leadership.
Imam Ahmed defeated Leben-Dengel at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529 (now Mojo).
Factors for Imam Ahmed's success:
Mobilizing lowland communities: Afar, Somali, Harar, Argoba.
Effective leadership.
Using the title Imam to gain Muslim support.
Instilling the spirit of Jihad.
Military assistance from the Ottoman Turks.
Better mobility and flexible tactics, with a unified command.
Support from his wife, Bati Del Wanbara.
After his victory, Imam's army controlled Christian territories of Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, as far as Mereb Melash. By 1535, Imam Ahmed's empire comprised the Ethiopian interior, stretching from Zeila to the Massawa coast.
Measures of Ahmed Gragn over occupied CHK:
Established an administrative bureaucracy (Muslims and recruited from Christian territories).
Burnt churches and monasteries.
Converted people to Islam.
Bati Dil Wanbera
She accompanied the Imam throughout his expeditions and delivered two sons in 1531 and 1533 during campaigns. After defeat by the Imam, Lebne Dengel retreated north as a fugitive until his death in 1540. He was succeeded by his son Gelawdewos, who continued to face the wars.
The conflict in the Ethiopian region began to take international dimensions with intervention from Portugal and Ottoman Turkey for their economic advantages in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. Since the 12th century, the LDTR to the Far East was blocked by the Ottoman Turks, who controlled Arabia, Egypt, the Red Sea coast, the Gulf of Aden, and the eastern coast of the Indian Ocean.
The Portuguese established trading stations along the eastern coasts of Africa following Vasco da Gama's discovery of a new sea route to India in 1498. They were interested in the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea coasts. Ottoman Turks provided support to Adal, realizing the diplomatic relation between the CK and Portugal. In 1540, 2oo Turkisk musketeers and ten cannons reinforced Imam Ahmed's force. In 1541, 400 Portuguese soldiers arrived to assist the Christian court, commanded by Christopher da Gama. However, in August 1542, the Christian army and Portuguese forces were defeated at the battle of Ofla, where Christopher da Gama died.
Queen Seblewongel
Lebne-Dengel's wife, participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542 and advised Gelawdewos to march for the battle of Woyna-Dega. After his success at Wofla (Ofla), Imam Ahmed sent the Turkish soldiers home and let his army camp. This was a fatal mistake: The Christian army was prepared for the final confrontation because of the advise of Queen's mother, Seble-Wongel, and a new war strategy was employed by CHK, which Christian army used a hit-and-run strategy, which severely affected Imam's army, because of limited resource and army. The Imam could not use its previous stratagy of attacking Christian army because he did not know where the attacks ofXns came from.
In 1543, Gelawdwos defeated Imam Ahmed at the battle of Woyna-Dega. Gelawdwos restored all the northern, central, and pre-1520 territories to CHK, tolerated the Muslim communities, and developed relations with the Muslim world, and restored the power of the monarchy in the Northern provinces and consolidate the kingdom through campaigns called camping Chewa (regiment). By doing so, he established a strong Christian Kingdom as of early 1550s. Challenges to the CHK under Gelawdewos included:
The Sultanate of Adal.
The Ottoman Turks.
The Jesuit interlude.
The Oromo advance into the centre.
The Adal
The retreating Adal soldiers began a war of revenge under Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid. In 1559, Nur Mujahid defeated and killed Gelawdewos. Gelawdewos was succeeded by Minas, who defeated the Turkish forces and regained coastal territories, including Dabarwa. In the early 1560s, Bahir Negash Yishaq (governor of the Red Sea coast) allied with the Turks and revolted against Emperor Sartsa-Dengle, who fought with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Ennarya, and the Oromo. He marched north, defeated Turkish forces, and restored the coastal territories.
Consequences of the Muslim-Christian War
Huge human and material losses.
Both CHK and Muslim were weakened.
Paved the way for Oromo penetration to the center.
Linguistic, cultural, and religious interaction of the peoples of Ethiopia.
Destruction of valuable heritages.
Outbreak of the Zemene Mesafint.
Decline of trade and commerce.
Shift of CHK's political capital from Shewa to north of Abbay.
Foreign intervention in Ethiopia and Horn for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean
Socio-economic and cultural interactions, with trade as a major channel of social integration. Long-distance trade and local markets fostered social ties. Ecological differences created economic interdependence, strengthening socio-economic bonds. Social links were strengthened through caravan merchants, and religions spread. These interactions laid the foundation for modern Ethiopia.
Southern and Central States in Ethiopia
Damot
Was the earliest of these states, existing from the Aksumite period south of the Blue Nile River. It expanded to include Enareya, Bizamo, and Walaita. Motalami was the most known king and converted to Christianity by Abune Tekle Haymanot in the late 13th century. The Solomonic dynasty tried to make Damot a tributary state in the late 13th c. In 1316, King Amde Seyon annexed Damot. It was a source of export items for Muslim and Christian traders.
Bizamo
Little information exists about Bizamo but it had early connections with Damot. Enareya, Kafa, and Wolaita also had similar connections with Damot.
Enareya
Existed north of the Gojeb River. The CHK tried to influence Enareya through Damot. Its rulers built churches but it was destroyed by Limmu Oromo and became Limmu-Enarya.
Kafa
Located south of Enareya, known since the end of the 14th century but not mentioned in Christian documents. It was an independent kingdom from the Christian Highland state.
Wolaita
Part of the Kingdom of Damot, the ruling dynasty was known as Wolaita-Malla. This dynasty recognized Motalami as its first king. Wolaita paid tribute to King Yeshaq and was a tributary of CHK until Ahmad Gragn's wars.
Central Ethiopian Highland States
They have existed for extended periods.
The Gurage Chiefdoms
Located west of Lake Zeway and Dawaro. Local chiefs used royal titles like Azmach, Abegaz, and Nigus.
The Agaw Kingdom of Gojjam
They were mentioned in Christian historical documents, settled in the northern and central Ethiopian Plateau, and based on agriculture and animal husbandry. The inhabitants were Agaws of the central Ethiopian highlands in Gojjam, predominantly Agaw speaking. Christian kings made attempts to control the kingdom, advancing using Lake Tana. Gojjam was incorporated into the Christian state by Amde Tseyon in the early 14th century.
Abba Za Yohannes, a Christian evangelizer, tried to convert the Agaws but they were converted earlier during the Zagwe period. Some Agaws south of Lake Tana continued to follow indigenous religion. Abba Za Yohannes preach, leading to conflict between Zhan Chuhay (Agaw ruler) and CHK. Zhan Chuhay arrested Abba Za Yohannes. Amde Tsiyon launched his forces, killed Zhan Chuhay, and freed Abba Za Yohannes, marking the incorporation of Gojjam into CHK. However, the title "King of Gojjam" was maintained by local rulers under the Christian state.
Gojjam was Christianized, with churches and monasteries built after its conquest. The economy of southern and central Ethiopian states was based on trade and agriculture. Traded items included slaves, civets, ivory, and other natural products. Enslaved people were the most important trade item, demanded in Arabia, Persia, and India, and were obtained as captives of war.
Societies and States Not Highly Organized
They inhabited frontier areas of Ethiopia and the west lowland or Ethio-Sudanese border. They were speakers of the Nilo-Saharan language, possessed local administrative systems, and were led by local elderly councils. They were the primary agents of frontier trade and cultural relations between Ethiopia and its neighbors.
Population Movements, Expansion, and Integration in Ethiopia
The lowland in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa is inhabited by Afar, Oromo, Somali, Saho, and other Cushitic language family speakers. In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the military conflict between the Christian kingdoms and the Sultanate of Adal was partly responsible for the Argoba, Afar and Somali population movement. In addition, the demographic pressure on the environment gave the background for the population movement.
Their territories lay in the region where trade routes passed and were affected by the consequences of the military conflict. Therefore, these people moved back and forth in response to the ongoing military conflict.
Argoba
The Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade, and Muslim state formation in the Horn. The sultanate of Shewa and Ifat was established by the Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties, respectively. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the sultanate of Shewa moved further east due to pressure from the Christian Kingdom. The sultanate of Ifat, where the Argoba were dominant, became the center of Muslim resistance. On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian Kingdom. The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the expanding Christian Kingdom and a major center of conflict, because the major caravan trade routes passed through Argoba territory. The Christian-Muslim rivalry and conflicts led to the destruction of sultanates and people dispersion. The enduring effect of the conflict can be observed from the fragmented settlement patterns of the people.
Afar
Due to drought, the Afar moved east until they reached the middle Awash. Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the Afar's territory. As a result, the region was the centre of competition between the Christian kingdoms and the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes. In addition to being actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to move in different directions to avoid the risk of disputes. In the sixteenth century, their pastoral economy helped them survive the destructive effects of the wars.
Somali
Their territory lay in the medieval competition to control trade routes. Likewise, before the wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi, there was strong demographic pressure from the Somali. The population movement of the Somali was a strong force behind the military strength of the Imam. However, the population movement of the Somali did not last for long as they returned to their home base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
Oromo
The Oromos are an indigenous Cushitic people of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. When Aksum came into history, it was quite clear that the Oromo also occupied a considerable part of the land in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. According to Oromo oral traditions, the original homeland of the Oromo before the sixteenth century was the south-central part of Ethiopia's highlands. The political and religious centre of the Oromo settlement area was Madda Walabu, located on the Bale-Sidama borderlands.
A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the movement of Oromo population in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These are: demographic pressure and need for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock population and the conflict between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim Sultanates that forced the Oromo to leave their lands and move to other areas. The combination of these factors resulted in a dramatic and large-scale population movement
Long before their expansion, the Oromo people were divided into two major confederacies: the Barentu and the Borana confederacies. Each confederacy comprised smaller divisions and clans. The Borana confederacy consisted of Mecha, Tulama, southern Borana and Guji clans. The Barentu was composed of the Karayu, Marawa, Ittu, Humbana, Akachu, Wollo and Arsi clans. The movement and expansion took place from around 1522 to 1618. The movement was set in two major directions in the Ethiopian region. The Barentu moved out in a northeast direction. The Borana followed a north-westerly direction. They also moved out in the directions of Kenya and Somalia outside the Ethiopian region. The movement took place in two stages:
The first stage was the period of a small and slow movement in the first half of the sixteenth century.
The second stage started around the mid-sixteenth century and lasted up to 1618. This was a large-scale movement carried out using force.
In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo were already organised under Borana and Barentu confederacies. The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abaya. When they reached halfway between Lakes Abaya and Hawassa, they took westward First, they penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest. Then they headed northwards to the lake's region of the Rift Valley. From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
The first Gadaa, i.e. Melba (1522-1530), fought and defeated the Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali.
Gadaa Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
The Kilole Gadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq
Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer.
The Michille (1554-62) scored a victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, Jan Amora forces, and Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559- 63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
In 1574, Sartsa Dingil's (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale Gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga.
However, Robale recovered by defeating Zara'a Yohannis' force.
The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena (1610-18) expanded to the West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim Sultanates, the organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played a crucial role in the success of the Oromo population movement. In their movement into various regions, different Oromo branches established Gadaa centres. These Gada centers were:
Oda Nabee of Tulama (East Shewa),
Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi),
Oda Bultum of Itu-Humbenna (Hararge),
Oda Bisil of Mecha (West Shewa) and
Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha (Horro Guduru).
Other places, which became Gadaa centres, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garad of Wallo, etc. Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others established Gadaa centres. They laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas. However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty. Besides, they obeyed similar culture and law (Seera) by sending their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe, until the pan- Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the political influence Ethiopian state. The Oromo population movement and expansion was successful for several reasons:
The Gadaa system provided training and military organisation.
Almost all members of society participated in wars.
The Oromo made use of the horse.
Adaptation facilitated expansion.
The Sultanate of Adal- was exhausted
The Oromo movement brought changes:
Ethnic and cultural intermixing.
The expanding Oromo destroyed the kingdoms of Damot, Bizamo and Ennarya.
The Christian kingdom was disturbed and forced to shift its political centre from Shewa to Gondar.
The Sultanate of Adal was reduced to Harar as a result of the Oromo expansion and after the death of Iman Ahmed, the Muslims of Adal was reorganised under Emir Nur Mujahid, because could not pursue his victory over the Christian forces because the Oromo forces had already reached the Harar area at the time. So, he returned to Adal to defend it from falling to the Oromo. Since most of Harar was occupied by the Oromo, he just built a wall around the town of Harar, which is known as the Jegol Gimb
This led to the end of an age-old conflict between Adal and the Christian kingdom. Following their movement and expansion, the Oromo became largely sedentary agriculturists. In time, they adopted Christianity and Islam. Still, later on, they were able to form kingdoms of their own
Gadaa System of the Oromo
The Gadaa system was based on age- grades egalitarian system in which an assembly or a chaffe of the ruling Gadaa class provided leadership for the Oromo nation, it was developed from knowledge gained by community experience over generations. The system regulates the community's political, economic, social, and religious activities dealing with conflict resolution , reparation , and protecting women's rights. It serves as a mechanism for enforcing moral conduct, building social cohesion, and expressing forms of community culture. The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo socially organized themselves, administered their affairs, defended their territories, maintained law order, and managed their economies. The Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system long before the sixteenth-century movement of the Oromo.
The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession and power-sharing to prevent a one-man rule. Other principles of the system included representation of all lineages, clans and confederacies. The Gadaa system organised the Oromo society into age grades and generation sets delineating members' social, political, and economic responsibilities. In the system, ten age grades and five classes operated in parallel. The system provided a socio-political framework that institutionalized relationships between seniors and juniors and egalitarian relations among grade members. The system helped the members of age-sets to develop a consistent and stable sense of self and others. Sons joined the first grade as members of Gadaa class (generation class or set) forty years after their fathers and were initiated into the next higher grade every eight years. Eight years represented one Gadaa period, five Gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation, and nine generations represented an era. The political philosophy of Gadaa is based on three main values:
I. terms of eight years
II. balanced opposition between parties
III. power-sharing between higher and lower levels.
In the Gadaa system, generation, age, sex, and class were the guiding criteria in labour division and the sharing of responsibilities. Gadaa system was interrupted and revitalized during various eras because of various internal and external factors. For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted after an interruption for nearly two generations and revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu, central Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until 1900.
Gumi-Gayo (Assembly of the representatives): this is the assembly of the representatives of the entire society that mainly serve as the law- making body. In theory, any individual had a right to attend and participate in the deliberation and would bring any matter to the attention of the gumi-gayo. Each class send a delegation of five people to sit at the legislative body called the Caffe. Common version of age grades and their roles:
Dabale (birth-8 years) and Game (9-16 years) are the grades of socialization
Folle (17-24 years) military training, agriculture
Qondala (25-32 years) military service;
Raba-Dori (33-40 years) candidates for political power
Gadaa (41-48 years) leaders of Gadaa government
Yuba (49 to 80 years) senior advisors, educators and ritual leaders.
The Gadaa assumed power for eight years. In the Gadaa system, there was peaceful transfer of political power from one Gadaa class to the other every eight years. The head of the government was known as Abba-Gadaa, literally “father of the period”, who was assisted by several elected representatives from among the generation set. Gada officials:
Abba Bokku (father of scepter)
Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly)
Abba-Dula (war leader)
Abba Sera (father of law)
Abba Alanga (judge)
Abba Lafa (father of land)
Abba Qallu (spiritual father)
Abba Sa'a (father of treasury)
The Abba Gadaa or Abba Boku served as the spokesman of the reigning set. He did not have absolute power. The supreme authority rested on the assembly (chaffe), which consisted of all members of the ruling Gadaa class or those in the sixth Gadaa grade (41 – 48 years). The Gadaa assembly takes place under a sycamore tree (Odaa), symbolically representing its emphasis on dialogue and consensus.
In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the ruling Gadaa class. Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution. Guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadaamojji/above 80 years), were believed to have sacred power. The kalale support and advise the ruling class.
Additional Principles of Gada System:
Rule of laws with the principle of accountability
Rule of confession and impeachment
Subordination of warriors to deliberative assemblies
Testing period time between elections &investiture
The principle of check and balanced.
Moggasa and Guddifacha
The Oromo integrated non-Oromo people through two adoption mechanisms.
Guddifacha: a parent adopting a child where the child enjoyed equal rights and privilege.s
Moggasa: Oromsu (adopting non-Oromos incorporating in a clan through oath of allegiance) where individual shares everything equally Moggasa was the practice of incorporating individuals or groups into a clan through an oath of allegiance. The incorporated person enjoys all the rights and obligations that such membership entailed. The Abba Gadaa undertook Moggasa on behalf of the clan. The adopted community or individual shares everything equally with the Oromos and gains protection and material benefits.
The Moggasa and Guddifacha culture allowed other peoples to mix with the Oromos and live together in peace. In their expansion, the Oromo adopted much of the population they came across and used them in their wars with the next group. The process significantly contributed to the social