The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Frédéric Sorrieu’s Vision of the World

  • The Artistic Dream (1848): Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, prepared a series of four prints visualizing his dream of a world composed of "democratic and social Republics."
  • Visual Depiction of Fig. 1:
    • Procession of Nations: Peoples of Europe and America—men and women of all ages and social classes—are seen marching in a long train, offering homage to the Statue of Liberty.
    • Personification of Liberty: Artists of the French Revolution era portrayed Liberty as a female figure. In the print, she bears the torch of Enlightenment in one hand and the Charter of the Rights of Man in the other.
    • Symbols of Absolutism: In the foreground of the image lie the shattered remains of symbols representing absolutist institutions.
    • Utopian Vision: Nations are grouped as distinct entities identified through their flags and national costumes. Leading the procession are the United States and Switzerland, which were already nation-states by $1848$.
    • Progress of Nations: France, identifiable by the revolutionary tricolour, has just reached the statue. Behind her are the German peoples carrying the black, red, and gold flag.
    • German Identity in 1848: At the time of the print, Germany did not exist as a united nation; the flag expressed liberal hopes to unify German-speaking principalities under a democratic constitution.
    • Other Groups: Following Germany are the peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia.
    • Religious Symbolism: Christ, saints, and angels gaze upon the scene from the heavens, symbolizing fraternity among the nations of the world.
  • Absolutist (Definition): A government or system of rule with no restraints on power; historically, a centralized, militarized, and repressive monarchical government.
  • Utopian (Definition): A vision of a society so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist.

The Concept of the Nation-State

  • Nineteenth Century Transformation: Nationalism emerged as a force that brought sweeping changes to the political and mental landscape of Europe, leading to the emergence of nation-states in place of multi-national dynastic empires.
  • Modern State vs. Nation-State:
    • Modern State: A centralized power exercising sovereign control over a clearly defined territory.
    • Nation-State: A state where the majority of citizens, not just rulers, develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent, forged through struggle and the actions of leaders and people.
  • Ernst Renan's Definition (1882): In his lecture "Qu’est-ce qu’une nation?" at the University of Sorbonne, Renan argued that a nation is not defined by common language, race, religion, or territory. Instead:
    • It is the culmination of a long past of endeavors, sacrifice, and devotion.
    • It requires a heroic past, great men, and glory as its social capital.
    • It is based on a common will in the present and the desire to perform great deeds together.
    • Plebiscite: Renan described the existence of a nation as a "daily plebiscite," where the inhabitants have the right to be consulted.
  • Plebiscite (Definition): A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal.

The French Revolution and National Identity

  • 1789 Revolution: The first clear expression of nationalism. It transferred sovereignty from the absolute monarchy to a body of French citizens.
  • Measures for Collective Identity:
    • La Patrie and Le Citoyen: The ideas of the fatherland and the citizen emphasized a united community with equal rights under a constitution.
    • Symbolism: A new tricolour flag replaced the former royal standard.
    • Political Reform: The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.
    • Civic Rituals: New hymns were composed, oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated in the name of the nation.
    • Administration: A centralized system formulated uniform laws for all citizens; internal customs duties/dues were abolished.
    • Uniformity: A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged, and French (as spoken in Paris) became the common language.
  • Mission of the Revolution: Revolutionaries declared it the destiny of the French nation to liberate other European peoples from despotism.
  • Jacobin Clubs: Educated middle classes in Europe set up these clubs, preparing the way for French armies to move into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the $1790s$.

The Napoleonic Era and its Impact

  • Administrative Reforms: Napoleon destroyed democracy in France by returning to monarchy but introduced revolutionary principles to make administration efficient.
  • The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code):
    • Abolished all privileges based on birth.
    • Established equality before the law.
    • Secured the right to property.
  • Export of Reforms: The code was introduced in the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany.
    • Simplified administrative divisions.
    • Abolished the feudal system; freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
    • Removed guild restrictions in towns.
    • Improved transport and communication systems.
  • Economic Gains: Businessmen and small-scale producers realized that uniform laws, standardized weights/measures, and a common national currency facilitated the movement of goods and capital.
  • Mixed Reactions to French Rule:
    • Initially, French armies were welcomed as "harbingers of liberty" in places like Brussels, Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw.
    • Enthusiasm turned to hostility due to increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription into French armies required to conquer the rest of Europe.

The Social Structure of Mid-Eighteenth-Century Europe

  • Fragmented Units: No nation-states existed; regions were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons ruled by autonomous rulers.
  • Diverse Empires: The Habsburg Empire (ruling Austria-Hungary) was a patchwork of regions:
    • Alpine Regions: Tyrol, Austria, and the Sudetenland.
    • Bohemia: Predominantly German-speaking aristocracy.
    • Italian-speaking provinces: Lombardy and Venetia.
    • Hungary: Half the population spoke Magyar; others spoke various dialects.
    • Galicia: Aristocracy spoke Polish.
  • Lack of Political Unity: The only common tie was allegiance to the emperor.
  • The Aristocracy:
    • Socially and politically dominant.
    • United by a common way of life, owning estates and town-houses.
    • Spoke French for diplomacy.
    • Numerically small compared to the peasantry.
  • Emergence of the Middle Class: Following industrialization (England in visual $2^{nd}$ half of $18^{th}$ century; France/Germany in $19^{th}$ century), a new social group of industrialists, businessmen, and professionals emerged, advocating for national unity and the abolition of aristocratic privileges.

Liberal Nationalism

  • Etymology: Derived from the Latin root liber, meaning free.
  • Political Stance:
    • Individual freedom and equality before the law.
    • Government by consent.
    • End of clerical privileges and autocracy.
    • Demand for a constitution and representative government through parliament.
    • Inviolability of private property.
  • Limitations of Liberalism: Equality before the law did not mean universal suffrage. In revolutionary France, only property-owning men had voting rights. Napoleon relegated women to the status of a minor.
  • Economic Liberalism: Demand for freedom of markets and abolition of state restrictions on exchange.
    • Case Study: Germany: Napoleon created a confederation of $39$ states, each with its own currency and weights/measures.
    • The Elle: A measure of cloth that varied by region ($54.7\,cm$ in Frankfurt, $65.6\,cm$ in Nuremberg).
    • Zollverein (1834): A customs union formed by Prussia and joined by most German states. It abolished tariff barriers and reduced currencies from over $30$ to $2$. A railway network further stimulated national unification.

The Conservative Order Post-1815

  • Conservatism: A political philosophy favoring tradition, established institutions (Church, monarchy), and gradual development over quick change.
  • The Congress of Vienna (1815): Hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich to draw up a settlement after Napoleon’s defeat.
  • The Treaty of Vienna (1815):
    • Restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France.
    • France lost territories annexed under Napoleon.
    • Buffer States: Kingdom of the Netherlands (including Belgium) set up in the north; Genoa added to Piedmont in the south.
    • Prussia received territory on western frontiers; Austria gained northern Italy.
    • The German confederation of $39$ states remained untouched.
    • Russia was given part of Poland; Prussia received part of Saxony.
  • Nature of Conservative Regimes: Autocratic, intolerant of dissent, and utilized censorship to control ideas of liberty and freedom.

The Revolutionaries and Giuseppe Mazzini

  • Underground Movements: Repression after $1815$ drove liberal-nationalists to form secret societies.
  • Giuseppe Mazzini:
    • Born in Genoa in $1805$.
    • Member of the Carbonari; exiled in $1831$ for a revolution attempt in Liguria.
    • Founded Young Italy (Marseilles) and Young Europe (Berne).
    • Believed nations were natural units of mankind and Italy must be a single unified republic.
  • Metternich's View: Described Mazzini as "the most dangerous enemy of our social order."

The Age of Revolutions: 1830–1848

  • July Revolution (France, 1830): Bourbon kings overthrown; constitutional monarchy installed under Louis Philippe. Metternich remarked: "When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches cold."
  • Belgium: The July Revolution led to Belgium breaking away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
  • Greek War of Independence:
    • Part of Ottoman Empire since $15^{th}$ century.
    • Struggle began in $1821$; supported by West Europeans sympathetic to ancient Greek culture.
    • Lord Byron (English poet) raised funds and died in the war in $1824$.
    • Treaty of Constantinople (1832): Recognized Greece as an independent nation.

Romanticism and Cultural Nationalism

  • Romanticism: A cultural movement criticizing reason and science, focusing on emotions and intuition.
  • German Culture: Johann Gottfried Herder argued true German culture resided in the common people (das volk). True spirit revealed through folk songs and dances (volksgeist).
  • The Grimm Brothers: Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm collected folktales to protect German culture against French domination.
  • Poland: Nationalist feelings kept alive via music (Karol Kurpinski used operas/dances like polonaise) and language despite Russian occupation.
    • Polish language was used as a weapon of resistance in Church gatherings; priests were exiled to Siberia for refusing to use Russian.

Economic Hardship and Social Unrest

  • The 1830s: Years of great economic hardship. Population growth led to overcrowding in cities and unemployment.
  • Competition: Small producers faced cheap machine-made imports from England.
  • 1848 Crisis: Food shortages and unemployment in Paris led and Louis Philippe to flee. A Republic was proclaimed with universal male suffrage for those over $21$.
  • Silesian Weavers' Revolt (1845): Weavers revolted against contractors who reduced payments for textiles. On $4$ June, weavers attacked a contractor’s mansion. Eleven weavers were killed in the subsequent army intervention.

The 1848 Revolution of the Liberals

  • Frankfurt Parliament: In May $1848$, $831$ elected representatives met in the Church of St Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation under a monarchy subject to a parliament.
  • Failure: Friedrich Wilhelm IV (King of Prussia) rejected the crown. The middle-class dominated parliament lost worker support and was disbanded by troops.
  • Women's Rights: Despite active participation in meetings and associations, women were denied suffrage and were only observers at the Frankfurt parliament.
  • Definition of Feminist: Awareness of women's rights and interests based on the belief of social, economic, and political equality of the genders.

Unification of Germany and Italy

  • Unification of Germany:
    • Prussia took leadership under Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck.
    • Achieved through "blood and iron" (army and bureaucracy).
    • Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark, and France.
    • January 1871: William I proclaimed German Emperor at the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles.
  • Unification of Italy:
    • Divided into seven states; only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian house (King Victor Emmanuel II).
    • Count Cavour: Chief Minister who engineered an alliance with France to defeat Austria in $1859$.
    • Giuseppe Garibaldi: Led the "Expedition of the Thousand" (Red Shirts) to South Italy in $1860$.
    • 1861: Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed king of united Italy. Rome joined in $1870$ after French withdrawal.

The Strange Case of Britain

  • A Long-drawn-out Process: No sudden revolution; forged through the power of the English parliament.
  • Act of Union (1707): Between England and Scotland, forming the "United Kingdom of Great Britain."
    • Suppressed Scottish Highlands' culture and Gaelic language.
  • Ireland: Forced incorporation in $1801$ after the failed revolt by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen ($1798$).
  • Symbols of New Britain: Union Jack flag, "God Save Our Noble King" anthem, and English language.

Visualizing the Nation

  • Allegory (Definition): When an abstract idea is expressed through a person or thing.
  • Marianne (France): Represented the Republic; symbols included the red cap, tricolour, and cockade. Images were on coins and stamps.
  • Germania (Germany): Wore a crown of oak leaves (symbolizing heroism).
  • Symbols and Meanings:
    • Broken chains: Being freed.
    • Breastplate with eagle: Strength of German empire.
    • Sword: Readiness to fight.
    • Olive branch around sword: Willingness to make peace.
    • Rays of rising sun: Beginning of a new era.

Nationalism and Imperialism

  • Late 19th Century Change: Nationalism became a narrow, intolerant creed manipulated by major powers for imperialist aims.
  • The Balkans: A region of modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro.
    • Inhabited by Slavs; mostly under the Ottoman Empire.
    • Disintegration of Ottoman Empire and romantic nationalism made it "explosive."
  • Rivalries: Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary competed for control over the Balkans, leading to the First World War in $1914$.
  • Global Impact: Anti-imperial movements elsewhere developed their own varieties of nationalism, accepting the nation-state as a universal standard.