Germany 1918-1939
The Origins of the Weimar Republic
The Legacy of WW1:
Germany faced heavy casualties: 2 million dead and over 4 million wounded (55% of troops became casualties).
The British Navy blockaded German ports, leading to food shortages that caused over 75,000 German deaths.
October 1918: German navy mutinied at Kiel, triggering strikes and protests across Germany.
The Kaiser, Wilhelm II, lost control in Berlin. His ministers advised abdication was the only way to restore order; he initially refused.
General Groener informed the Kaiser that he had lost army support, forcing his resignation on November 9, 1918.
The Formation of the Weimar Government:
November 9: Huge crowds in Berlin, some peaceful, others armed.
The SPD (Social Democrats), the largest party in the Reichstag, responded to the threat of a Communist government by announcing the creation of a new German Republic and that the Kaiser had gone.
Friedrich Ebert, the SPD leader, became the new Chancellor and agreed to work with the army to prevent a Communist takeover.
November 10: Ebert suspended the old Reichstag and appointed six moderate politicians to form the Council of People’s Representatives.
The council was to lead until a new constitution was formed.
Ebert kept the moderate SPD in power and prevented a Communist takeover.
November 11: Ebert’s government signed the armistice, formally ending World War I.
Setting up the Weimar Republic:
Ebert retained civil servants from the Kaiser's regime to ensure state continuity, instructing them to work alongside local soldiers’ and workers’ councils.
Ebert reassured General Groener that the army would not be reformed; officers kept their ranks in exchange for the army's support of the Republic.
Ebert promised leaders of industry (like Hugo Stinnes) that there would be no confiscation of land or factories, and that private industries would not be nationalized.
Ebert secured trade union support by promising an 8-hour working day.
Impact of Ebert’s First Measures:
Extreme political parties remained dissatisfied, leading to demonstrations and riots.
Germany was on the brink of anarchy.
Ebert maintained fragile control, ensuring moderates were in power long enough to agree on a new constitution.
The Weimar Constitution
The New Constitution:
The Council of People’s Representatives was temporary; Ebert called national elections for a National Assembly to create a new constitution.
Elections occurred on January 19, 1919, with high voter turnout (82%).
Moderate parties won the most seats: SPD won 40%, Centre Party won 20%.
The National Assembly met in Weimar due to unrest in Berlin.
July 31: The National Assembly agreed to a new constitution (262 votes to 75).
The new republic became known as the Weimar Republic.
The Structure of the Weimar Government:
President: Head of the Weimar Republic, elected every seven years. The President appointed the Chancellor, headed the army, and could invoke Article 48.
Chancellor: Head of the government, selected ministers, and ensured parliamentary cooperation.
Cabinet: Key ministers forming the main decision-making body.
The German Parliament:
Reichstag: The more powerful house. Controlled taxation and was directly elected every four years.
Reichsrat: Represented the regions of Germany and was elected every four years. Representation was based on region size.
The electorate: All men and women over 21 years old could vote.
Strengths of the Weimar Constitution:
Democratic: All men and women over 21 could vote, more democratic than under the Kaiser or in Britain.
Proportional Representation: Ensured smaller parties gained seats in the Reichstag (one representative per 60,000 votes).
Checks and Balances: Prevented any single person or group from having too much power. The President could choose the chancellor and dismiss the Reichstag, but could be replaced every seven years. The Chancellor needed the support of the Reichstag and Reichsrat to pass laws. The Reichsrat could delay laws unless overruled by a 2/3 majority in the Reichstag.
The central government had more power than under the Kaiser, but local governments retained control over key services like police, courts, and schools via Land parliaments in each of the 18 regions.
Weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution:
Coalition Government: Proportional representation led to many small parties in the Reichstag (29 in the 1920s), making it difficult for any single party to achieve a majority. Coalition governments were common, leading to compromises and unstable policies. There were nine coalition governments between 1919 and 1923.
Weakness in Crisis: Article 48 allowed the chancellor to ask the president to pass laws by decree without Reichstag support during a crisis. By 1930, chancellors relied on the president rather than the Reichstag, undermining democracy.
Based on Division and Violence: The government used force to stop riots during the German Revolution. Several parties, including nationalists and Communists, opposed democracy and the constitution.
Unpopularity of the Government:
The politicians who signed the Armistice in 1918 were the same ones who set up and ran the Weimar Republic. They were therefore always linked to surrender and harsh peace terms.
Germany was facing social and political unrest, and was running out of money and troops. German army was in retreat from August 1918, and the German defensive line was breached.
The Treaty of Versailles
Terms of the Treaty:
The peace treaty was signed at Versailles on June 28, 1918.
War Guilt Clause (Article 231): Germany was blamed for the war and forced to pay reparations.
Reparations: Set at £6.6 billion.
Military Restrictions: German army reduced to 100,000 men, limited navy, no air force or submarines.
Territorial Losses: Germany lost c.13% of its land, including the Polish Corridor, Alsace Lorraine, and all 11 German colonies.
League of Nations: A League of Nations to be set up, but Germany was not allowed in it.
German Reaction:
Diktat: The Treaty was forced upon them and Germany had no say in it’s preparation.
November Criminals: Term used to describe the German government who agreed to surrender.
Dolchstoss: The myth that the German army was never defeated but was instead stabbed in the back by the Weimar politicians.
Unfair: The Germans surrendered expecting to receive President Wilson’s 14 Points (which would have seen Germany treated fairly along with the other countries in the war).
Germany lost 10% of its population, 13% of its European territory, all of its overseas property and investments, and almost 50% of its iron and 15% of its coal reserves.
Left and Right Wing:
Moderates were in the majority in the new Weimar Government and had about 80% of the seats in the Reichstag.
Extreme groups on the left and the right did not support the Weimar Republic.
Extremist politicians from the Left and Right wings politically attacked the moderate parties in the Reichstag.
Challenges to the Weimar Republic 1919-1922
The Left-Wing:
Wanted Germany to be controlled by the people and opposed capitalism.
The German Communist Party (KDP) was the main left wing party in 1919.
The Sparticist Revolt, 1919
The Sparticists called for an uprising and a general strike in Berlin, and on 6 January 100,000 workers took to the streets.
Ebert turned to the Freikorps (Free Corps) to respond to the workers.
By 13 January the workers had been driven off the streets.
On 16 January Luxembourg and Liebknecht were arrested and killed by Freikorps officers. This stopped the left-wing rebellion.
The Right-Wing:
Wanted a return to strong government, and supported capitalism.
The National Party (DNVP) was the main right wing party in 1919.
The Kapp Putsch, 1920
Five thousand armed men marched on Berlin.
The rebels were able to take control of the city, and declared a new government and invited the Kaiser to return from exile.
German government fled and called for a General Strike.
Essential services stopped and the capital grind to a halt. After four days, Kapp realised that he could not govern. He fled, but was caught and put in prison where he later died.
Political Violence 1919-1922
Political assassinations
Hugo Haase, one of Ebert’s Council of People’s Representatives, was murdered in 1919.
Matthias Erzberger, the politician who signed the Armistice to the Allies in 1918, was shot and killed in August 1921.
Walther Rathenau, the Weimar foreign minister, was machine- gunned to death in Berlin in June 1922.
In all, there were 376 political murders of left-wing or moderate politicians.
Increasing political violence
Most political parties hired armed men to guard their meetings.
The KPD set up a private army called the Rotfrontkämpfer (Red Front Fighters)
The DNVP were supported by the Stahlhelm (Steel Helmets)
The moderate SPD had the Reichsbanner Schwartz-Rot-Gold (Black Red Gold Flag)
The Challenges of 1923
The French occupation of the Ruhr
Causes: Germany was bankrupt and could no longer afford to pay reparations.
French actions: The French sent troops into the German industrial area of the Ruhr in January 1923.
German response: The government urged passive resistance; workers went on strike and there was some sabotage.
The occupation crippled Germany as it contained factories and around 80% of German coal, iron and steel reserves.
Inflation and hyperinflation
Causes: Due to the shortages made by the Ruhr crisis and The government printed more money.
Initially, printing extra money made it easier for the government to pay reparations, but it also made inflation even worse.
By 1923, prices reached spectacular heights, for example a 1 mark loaf of bread in 1919 now cost 200,000 billion marks in 1923.
Effects of hyperinflation:
Normal living became impossible as people the printing presses could not print enough currency.
German marks became worthless for importing goods.
People with savings in the bank, insurance policies or pensions were hit hardest, as their saved money became worthless.
The Recovery 1924-1929
Economic recovery
Rentenmark (1923): In November 1923 Stresemann set up a new state-owned bank. This issued a new temporary currency, the Rentenmark.
The Dawes Plan (1924): This was an economic plan by the American banker Charles G. Dawes to help resolve the problem of Germany’s non-payment of reparations.
It temporarily reduced reparations payments to £50 million per year, and US banks also agreed to give loans to German industry.
The Young Plan (1929): American plan headed by banker Owen Young. This reduced the total reparations debt from £6.6 billion to £2 billion.
Foreign relations improvement
The Locarno Pact (1925): Treaty agreed between Germany, Britain, France, Italy and Belgium. Germany accepted its new 1919 border with France, who now promised peace with Germany.
The League of Nations (1926):
In September 1926 Stresemann was able to persuade the other great powers to give Germany a place as a member, and also a place on the League of Nations Council, which took the most important decisions of the League.
Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): Germany and 61 other countries signed the Pact, which promised that states would not use war to achieve foreign policy aims
Impact on domestic policies
Support for moderate political parties rose and support for extremist parties fell.
Confidence in the Republic increased in 1925, when Friedrich Ebert, the president of the Republic, died. He was replaced by Paul von Hindenburg, the former field marshal of the Kaiser’s armies.
How Far Did Stresemann Help Germany Recover?
Economic Agreement
Rentenmark: Restored trust in German currency. Ended hyperinflation. Formed basis for recovery of German businesses
Dawes Plan: Industrial output doubled. Employment, trade and income from taxation increased
Young Plan: Lowered reparation payments. The French now agreed to leave the Rhineland in 1930.
Foreign relations
The Locarno Pact Made war in Europe less likely. Germany was now treated as an equal.
The League of Nations Boosted moderate parties. Boosted confidence of most Germans in the Weimar Republic.
The Kellogg-Briand Pact Showed that Germany was now included amongst the main powers
Changes in Society
Standard of living
Unemployment: In 1924, over 4% of the workforce was unemployed. In 1926 there were 2 million unemployed. By 1928 there were only 1.3 million unemployed.
Wages: The length of the working week shortened from 50 hours in 1925 to 46 hours in 1927. However, real wages rose by 25% from 1925-1928.
Housing: By 1923 there was a shortage of one million homes in Germany. The government invested a lot in building new homes. Between 1924 and 1931 more than 2 million new homes were built.
Under the 1920 Reich Pension Law, pensions were paid throughout the 1920s to 750,0000 war veterans
Women
Politics: In November 1918 the government gave women the right to vote and the right to stand for elections. By 1932, 112 women had been elected to the Reichstag.
Work: During WW1, more women went into paid work. By 1918, 75% of women were in work. Under the Weimar Republic, however, only 36% of women were in work, about the same as pre-war levels.
Leisure: For young, unmarried working women in the cities, there was greater financial independence, they became known as ‘new women’.
Cultural Changes in the Weimar Republic
New ideas
The restrictions of the Kaiser and the old regime had been thrown off, and the new Weimar constitution encouraged ideas about freedom.
The new ideas were:
New Objectivism: The idea that the Arts should not show a romantic view of the world, but should show life as it really is
Modernism: The idea that the Arts should not focus on the past, but should embrace the future and see beauty in cities, industry and technology.
Expressionism: the idea that the Arts should reflect the thoughts and feelings of the artist, rather than showing things as they look exactly.
Art: Otto Dix painted expressionist versions of scenes from Germany
Architecture: Erich Mendelsohn, were influenced by the Bauhaus movement, for example when he designed the Einstein Tower in Potsdam, he designed a futuristic tower looking like a rocket.
Cinema: Fritz Lang directed Metropolis, the most technologically advanced film of the decade
Literature: Erich Remarque wrote the novel ‘All quiet on the Western Front which described the horror of WW1.
Theatre: New operas and plays emerged, the Ziettheater and Zietoper
The Early Development of the Nazi Party 1919-1922
Early role of Hitler
At the end of WW1, Hitler was angry about the defeat of Germany and joined the German Workers’ Party (DAP) led by Anton Drexler.
He was good at public speaking and increased party membership from 1,000 in June 1920 to 3,000 by the end of 1920 through his role as party speaker.
The 25 Point Programme
In 1920, Hitler and Drexler wrote the 25 Point programme included to unite all Germans, abolish the Treaty of Versailles, expand borders, deny Jews citizenship, destroy communism, create a strong central government, establish government control of all important industries.
Hitler’s changes to the Party
Hitler renamed the Party the NationalSocialist German Workers Party (NSDAP, or Nazi Party)
The Party began to use the swastika as a logo and also the straight-arm salute.
NSDAP membership grew from about 1,100 in June 1920 to about 55,000 in November 1923.
Party leadership
In July 1921, Hitler forced a leadership contest with Drexler, who was defeated. Hitler became leader of the NSDAP.
The SA
The Sturmabteilung, or Stormtroopers, were a paramilitary force, many recruited from the unemployed and ex-soldiers.
The Munich Putsch, 1923
Why did Hitler attempt the Putsch?
Hitler detested the Weimar government.
Germany had been humiliated following the French occupation of the Ruhr.
Hitler thought he could persuade the state government of Bavaria.
The Nazi Party had increased support by 1923.
What happened?
On the evening of 8th November, Hitler and 600 Nazis seized the Bürgerbraükeller beer hall in Munich.
Shots were fired and 16 Nazis and 4 police officers were killed. The Nazis scattered.
Hitler used the trial to put forward his views.
Hitler was found guilt of treason and was sentenced to five years in Landsberg Prison.
In prison Hitler wrote his autobiography, Mein Kampf (‘My Struggle’)
What was the impact on the Nazi Party?
In the short term, Hitler was imprisoned and the Nazi Party was banned.
Hitler realised that he needed to have complete control over the Party to secure its future success.
Hitler realised that violent coups would not work, and that the Nazis would need to use legal means to gain power, by winning elections.
Hitler’s Ideas in Mein Kampf
Nationalism
Breaking the restrictions on Germany in the Treaty of Versailles
Reviving the power of Germany
Making Germany self-sufficient
Socialism
Running the economy in the national interest.
Both agriculture and industry would flourish
Totalitarianism
The belief that the Nazi Party should control every aspect of life.
Total loyalty to the leader.
Traditional German values
Strong family values, with clear male and female roles.
Christian morality
Old-style German culture, with traditional art, music and theatre
Struggle
Germany should struggle outside her borders, against other countries, for land
Racial Purity
The Aryans were the superior race.
The lowest form of life, for Hitler, were the Jews
The Nazis in the Lean Years, 1924-28
How did Hitler change the Nazi Party?
Upon his release from prison, Hitler resumed his position as leader of the Party.
Hitler saw the Communists building up their strength and did the same by creating a large network of local party branches (Gaue)
Hitler made sure that only his closest supporters helped him run the party
The SA new leader of the SA was Franz Pfeffer von Solomon.
Hitler also formed a new group, the Schutzstaffel (SS), who were fanatically loyal to Hitler
Peasant farmers and middle-class shopkeepers did increase their support
Membership of the Nazi Party rose to over 100,000 by 1928.
In the 1928 elections, the Nazis only gained 12 seats in the Reichstag
In the 1928 elections, The Nazis were still only a minority party
The Bamberg Conference, 1926
Whilst Hitler was in prison, the party had split into rival groups, under the leadership of Alfred Rosenberg.
Hitler called the conference, to address the split, at Bamberg in Bavaria.
The Impact of the Great Depression
Causes
In October 1929 the Wall Street Crash took place in the USA.
International trade began to dry up, and German exports fell.
Unemployment began to rise as employers sacked workers and factories closed.
Stresemann had also died the previous month
Government responses
Brüning of the Centre Party did not have a majority and so relied on President Hindenburg and Article 48.
The Nazis made a breakthrough, winning 107 seats and becoming the second largest party,
Brüning continued to reduce government spending which lost him the support of the unemployed and led to him being nicknamed ‘the Hungry Chancellor’.
Impact on German Communist Party
During the 1920s the KPD was the largest Communist Party in Europe and the largest outside of the Soviet Union.
Why Did Support for the Nazis Increase 1929-32?
Role of Goebbels
The Nazis increased their support through propaganda, having rallies, putting up posters
In 1929, Goebbels was appointed Head of Propaganda for the Nazi Party.
By the early 1930s, the Nazis owned 120 daily or weekly newspapers
Nazi election success
The Weimar government’s response to the Great Depression was not effective.
The Nazis blamed the Weimar government for causing the economic crisis.
Hitler also blamed the Jews as a scapegoat for Germany’s problems.
The Presidential election of 1932
During this election, Hitler stood against Hindenburg.
Why Did Support for the Nazis Increase 1929-32? Pt 2
Financial support for the Nazis
The Nazis received funds from leading industrialists like Thyssen, Krupp and Bosch.
By 1932 the Nazis also built links with the National Party (DNVP), led by Alfred Hugenberg.
Role of the SA
Hitler’s speeches portrayed democracy and the Weimar Government as weak.
The Nazis used the SA to provide protection for their meetings, and also to disrupt the meetings of their opponents, especially the Communists
Role of Hitler
Hitler had developed the art of public speaking and attracted many members to the Party.
He helped draw up the 25 point programme and he was aware that that following the failure of the Putsch he had to present himself and the Party as law-abiding and democratic.
Who Supported the Nazis?
Big Business
The Nazis were able to persuade them that they were the best hope of protection from the Communists.
Working-class support
The NSDAP tried to appear like the party of the German working class
Middle-Class support
The middle classes saw the Nazis as a strong party who could protect them from the Communists.
Farmers
the Nazis promised them help and reassured farmers that they would only confiscate land if it was owned by Jews
Young People
The Nazi Party was exciting and Hitler’s speeches were passionate.
Women
Nazi propaganda made special appeals to women
How Did Hitler Become Chancellor?
The July 1932 elections
In 1930 the Nazis had become the second largest party in the Reichstag.
There was much violence in the run up to the election, about 100 people were killed
The Nazis won 230 seats and became the largest party in the Reichstag.
Von Papen’s Chancellorship
Von Papen did not give up his role as Chancellor and began to scheme with President Hindenburg.
*Von Schleicher the Minister of Defence, was able to persuade Hindenburg that if this happened there might be a civil war. Papen lost Hindenburg’s confidence and resigned.
Papen’s deal with Hitler
They agreed that Hitler should lead a Nazi-Nationalist government, with Papen as Vice-Chancellor.
Hitler becomes Chancellor on 30th January 1933.
How Did Hitler Consolidate His Power? (1933-1934)
January 30th 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor and calls an election for March 4th 1933.
February 27th 1933: The Reichstag fire occurs.
March 4th 1933: The Nazis win the election with 44.6% of the vote (288 seats).
May 1933 Trade Unions are banned.
July 1933: all other political parties were banned.
WHY DID HITLER LAUNCH THE NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES?
1 – Rohm had boasted of a second more socialist revolution
2 – The SA had served their purpose
3 – Hitler needed the army on side
AUGUST 1934 – Hindenburg dies Hitler became the FUHRER (leader)
Gleichschaltung - Hitler’s Vision for Germany
Greater Germany: there would be a giant empire in Eastern Europe where pure Aryan Germans would live. All Germans would put the needs of the state above everything else. Loyalty to Hitler Economic Strength Nazis would build up Germany’s industries Military Strength The armed forces would be built up. Racial Purity Aryan people would get the best jobs
How Did the Nazis Control All German People? Pt 1
ADOLF HITLER – THE FUHRER HEINRICH HIMMLER HEAD OF THE SS The SS maintained security within the party and the country
The Gestapo investigated political threats.
The Sicherheitsdienst (SD) intelligence body of the Nazis. THE GERMAN PEOPLE – the most important factor in the Nazi control system They were expected to denounce suspicious characters.
How Did the Nazis Control All German People? Pt 2
The concentration camps:
Prisoners were people that did not conform to Nazi ideals.
Control of the legal system
Hitler could ensure that all judges supported Nazi ideas.
PROPAGANDA
Nazi policies to media, sport, culture and art
Spectacular parades
One pot Sunday campaign
Nazi Control of Culture and the Arts
Sport: Goebbels tried to ‘Nazify’ sport.
The Berlin Olympics, 1936: The Nazis built a stadium which could hold 110,000 people, the largest in the world
Culture and the Arts: In 1933 the Reich Chamber of Culture was set up which covered art, architecture, literature, music, theatre and film. Overseen by Goebbels.
Art: The Nazis set up a Reich Chamber of Visual Arts and held visual art competitions.
Architecture: The Nazis disliked modernist and futuristic architecture.One of the main architects for the Nazis was Albert Speer.
Books: All new books had to be approved by the Reich Chamber of Culture.
Music: Some types of music were banned. Jazz music as it was seen as it was seen as ‘black music’ and inferior.
Films: The Nazis made their own films, about 1,300 in total. Nazi films had political underlying messages.
Nazi Policies Towards the Church
The Nazis and the Catholic Church
Reason for tension: One third of German Christians were Catholics.
Early attempts at compromise: July 1933 the Concordat was made with the Pope which Hitler agreed to confirm freedom of worship.
Later actions against the Church: Hitler broke his promise.
The Nazis and the Protestant Church
Early relationship: At the start of the Nazi regime, some Protestants admired Hitler – the ‘German Christians’.
Opposition: Not all Protestants accepted the Nazis. The most famous was the Pastor Martin Niemӧller, and was sent to a concentration camp and the PEL was banned.
Opposition From the Church
Opposition from Churches
The Pastors’ Emergency League (PEL): Protestant Pastors including Martin Niemӧller, set up the PEL in 1933 as The opposed two key aspects of Nazi treatment.
The Confessing Church and the Catholic Church were also against Nazi teachings
Opposition From Young People
The Edelweiss Pirates
Who and why? Emerged in the late 1930s in working-class parts of big cities.
What did they do? Boys wore their hair long.
The Swing Youth
Who and why? Mainly teenagers from wealthy middle-class families
What did they do? They often owned record players and illegally imported American records.
His actions were limited and low-level.
What Were Nazi Attitudes Towards Women?
1933 The Nazis believed that women had different roles in life and the MARRIAGE LOANS were created.
Gertrude Scholtz-Klink became the Head of the Women’s Bureau
Women were to follow the 3 K’s – Kinder, Küche, Kirche - Children, Kitchen and Church.
1937 – The role of women changes as The number of women working increased
1938 – But we still need more children and the LEBENSBORN programme was setup
Overall, Nazi policies towards women achieved their aims and were largely successful.
What Were Nazi Attitudes Towards the Young?
1933 – Hitler wants to turn the young into Nazis and soldiers of the future.
Boys to start in the German Young People and progress to the Hitler Youth (HJ).
Girls to start in the Young Girls and progress to the League of German maidens (BDM).
By 1936 membership was made compulsory: 3 million boys are in the Hitler Youth .with 2.5 million girls in the BDM.
As the Propaganda film, The Triumph of the Will, shows the Hitler Youth played an important role.
1936 – Berlin Olympics The Youth played a part in displaying Nazi power and unity by being present at the Berlin Olympics.
Nazi Control of Education
Bernhard Rust, Nazi education minister’s purpose of education to create Nazis’.
Nazi control of teachers: Teachers swore oath of loyalty and had to join the Nazi Teachers’ League.
Nazi control of the curriculum: traditional subject and the old testament was removed.
Traditional subjects were changed to match the ideals of the Nazi’s.
New schools: Napola schools
How Did the Nazis Achieve Employment in Germany?
Dr Ley was the RAD leader and Job: creation schemes included roads, lands, and bridges.
Industrial output increased in coal, steel and iron ore and in 1935 Rearmament and Conscription
All workers had to be members of the Nazi party
They created public works job creation schemes.
How Did the Nazis Improve the Economy? Part 1
PHASE 1 – The work of Dr Schacht 1933-1936
*Goals: Decrease unemployment and re-arm.New Plan: Imports were limited and controlled and trade deals established
In Phase 2 Hermann Goering launched the 4 Year Plan with the goals to prepare Germany for war. Production in coal, iron and steel was all increased
How Did the Nazis Improve the Economy? Part 2
Schacht organised Germany’s finances to fund huge programmes of work creation. The National Labour Service
In 1935 Hitler reintroduced conscription for the army.
They did this through a variety of initiatives