diagnosing disorders, part one Psychology: Psychological Disorders

Overview of Psychological Disorders

This document provides an exhaustive overview of the various psychological perspectives on disorders, their characteristics, examples, and classification as discussed in AP Psychology Topic 5.3 and subsequent topics.

Major Psychological Perspectives

  • Behavioral Approach

    • Key Concept: Learning

    • Focuses on maladaptive learned associations between responses and stimuli.

    • Reinforcement:

    • Positive Reinforcement: Increases behavior when something positive is presented.

    • Negative Reinforcement: Increases behavior by removing an aversive stimulus (e.g., fear of spiders leads to running away, which reduces anxiety, thus reinforcing the behavior).

  • Psychodynamic Approach

    • Key Concept: Childhood and Unconscious

    • Emphasizes unconscious thoughts and experiences stemming from childhood conflicts.

    • Components:

    • Id, Ego, and Superego:

      • Id: Represents base desires.

      • Superego: Represents moral standards.

      • Ego: Mediates between the two.

    • Anxiety arises from suppressed socially unacceptable desires or pressures from the superego aiming for perfection.

  • Humanistic Approach

    • Key Concept: Growth and Personal Development

    • Suggests that the inability to grow or reach one’s full potential causes anxiety or depression.

    • Importance of unconditional positive regard and self-actualization for mental health.

  • Cognitive Approach

    • Key Concept: Thoughts and Beliefs

    • Focuses on how rational or irrational thoughts affect emotions and behaviors.

    • Example of Rumination: Similar to cows chewing their cud; individuals repeatedly focus on negative thoughts, which can exacerbate anxiety and depression.

  • Evolutionary Approach

    • Key Concept: Survival

    • Analyzes behaviors as adaptations for survival.

    • Fears can be adaptive (e.g., fear of spiders promotes avoidance of harmful situations) but can also reduce reproductive fitness (e.g., fear of rejection prevents relationship formation).

  • Sociocultural Approach

    • Key Concept: Impact of Society and Culture

    • Considers how group dynamics, societal expectations, and individual identity affect mental health.

    • Individualistic versus collectivist cultures shape types of anxiety and societal pressures.

  • Biological Approach

    • Key Concept: Genetics and Neurochemistry

    • Focuses on physiological aspects such as neurotransmitter levels and genetic predispositions that contribute to psychological disorders.

  • Eclectic Approach

    • Combines elements from multiple perspectives to understand and treat psychological disorders.

    • Example: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) which integrates cognitive and behavioral approaches along with possible biological interventions (e.g., medication).

Developmental Disorders

General Characteristics

  • Develop during the individual’s developmental period.

  • Symptoms affect behaviors, cognition, and emotions.

  • Typically lifelong; management focuses on functionality rather than cure.

Specific Disorders

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

  • Symptoms:

    • Inattention: overlooking details, difficulty focusing, frequently not finishing tasks.

    • Hyperactivity/Impulsivity: fidgeting, interrupting others, trouble waiting.

  • Diagnosis Criteria: Five out of nine indicators must be present for at least six months.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

  • Symptom Categories:

    • Impaired Social Communication: difficulties with social-emotional reciprocity, nonverbal communication, and forming friendships.

    • Restrictive and Repetitive Behaviors: repetitive movements, fixated interests, inflexibility in routines, and sensory sensitivities.

  • Misconception: The term “spectrum” refers to the range of symptoms, not a degree of severity.

Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder

Definition

  • Psychosis: A mental condition where reality is distorted; individuals may experience hallucinations or delusions.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

  • Positive Symptoms: Presence of atypical behaviors such as:

    • Delusions: False beliefs about reality.

    • Hallucinations: Perceptions of stimuli that do not exist, primarily auditory.

    • Disorganized Speech: Also known as 'word salad' where speech lacks coherence.

  • Negative Symptoms: Absence of typical behaviors, such as:

    • Flat affect or low emotional response.

    • Lack of movement (catatonic behavior).

Diagnosis Criteria

  • Must exhibit at least two out of five main symptoms for over one month, with one being either delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech.

Risk Factors

  • Genetic vulnerability, prenatal exposure to viruses, childhood trauma, and social dysfunction.

  • Dopamine Hypothesis: Suggests links between dopamine levels in the brain and symptoms of schizophrenia.

Depressive and Bipolar Disorders

Classification in DSM-V

  • Depressive Disorders: Characterized by a sad, empty, or irritable mood impacting functioning.

  • Bipolar Disorders: Cycling moods, primarily characterized by manic episodes alternating with depressive states.

Symptoms of Depressive Disorders

Major Depressive Disorder

  • Symptoms present every day for at least two weeks.

Persistent Depressive Disorder

  • Milder symptoms present over two years.

Symptoms of Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar I

  • Requires the presence of at least one manic episode; depressive episodes are not necessary for diagnosis.

Bipolar II

  • Requires at least one hypomanic episode and one depressive episode; symptoms of mania are less severe.

Symptoms of Mania

  • Inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, increased talkativeness, racing thoughts, reckless behavior.

Anxiety Disorders

  • Common responses to stress; can become disorders when excessive or attached to unrealistic threats.

  • Types of Anxiety Disorders:

    • Specific Phobias: Intense fear of a specific object or situation.

    • Panic Disorder: Panic attacks characterized by overwhelming fear without apparent cause.

    • Agoraphobia: Fear of public spaces or situations that could result in panic.

    • Social Anxiety Disorder: Fear of being judged by others.

    • Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Chronic, nonspecific anxiety.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

  • Now classified separately from anxiety disorders; involves obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive actions).

Summary and Key Takeaways

  • Psychological disorders can be approached from multiple perspectives, each offering unique insights into causes and treatments.

  • Developmental disorders display symptoms that emerge in childhood and follow individuals throughout life, while psychotic disorders like schizophrenia involve a loss of contact with reality.

  • Bipolar and depressive disorders affect emotional regulation and functioning, while anxiety disorders revolve around fear responses, whether real or imagined.

  • Understanding these classifications helps in diagnosing, researching, and treating psychological disorders effectively.