Chapter 2 Notes: The Mexican Revolution, 1876–1940

Global context and triggers of the Mexican Revolution

Early 20th century context across Europe and the Americas shaped a global landscape of nationalism, industrialization, and imperial competition. European powers pursued overseas colonies to expand empires and access new markets, fueling tensions that contributed to global conflict.
The United States expanded geographically and economically (railways, resources) and extended its reach into markets via events like the Spanish–American War and the Panama Canal project, projecting national power beyond its borders.
Mexico experienced foreign investment-driven growth under Porfirio Díaz, which created a rapid modernization trajectory but also deep social and economic inequalities that helped spark rebellion.
The Mexican case linked domestic reform to global economic forces: foreign control of resources, labor exploitation, and a political system dominated by a small elite.

Core factors leading to the Mexican Revolution (2.1): causes and pressure points

Porfiriato (1876–1911) consolidated power under Díaz through modernization, modernization-driven economic policy, and political repression by a cadre of científicos (scientists/technocrats).
Díaz’s regime allowed extensive foreign investment (mining, oil, railways) at the expense of Mexican workers and peasants, widening the rural-urban and social gaps.
Liberal reforms and Church-state tensions had deep roots from the La Reforma era (mid-19th century): Ley Juárez and Ley Lerdo under the 1857 constitution sought to curb Church privileges (landholding, education, political influence). Díaz navigated these laws but often allowed local enforcement to vary, preserving Church influence in rural areas while also permitting some Catholic and non-Catholic denominations to operate.
Agriculture and land: Terrenos Baldíos policy and large-scale privatization under Díaz displaced peasants, converting communal lands into haciendas and channeling land to foreign investors and Mexican elites; forced labor and debt peonage followed.
Labor and working conditions: Mining and textile sectors were dominated by foreign capital; local Mexican laborers faced lower wages, long hours, and inferior conditions, while foreign workers gained access to better housing and benefits. The Rio Blanco textile strike (1907) and Cananea strike (1906) highlighted labor grievances and Díaz’s hardline responses (with federal troops and foreign support).
Railways and oil: Substantial foreign subsidies, concessions, and land deals for rail and oil development created a political economy where elites and foreign interests benefited disproportionately from Mexican resources.
Economic vulnerabilities: Devaluation of silver (1905–1906) and rising import prices destabilized the economy, fueling unrest among workers and peasants.
Emergence of revolutionary consciousness: Frustration with land dispossession, labor exploitation, and political repression culminated in organized opposition from diverse groups (peasants, workers, regional leaders).

Key terms and numbers (contextual references):

Terrenos Baldíos: large-scale land seizure and privatization under Díaz, often lacking fair ownership documentation; arable lands were converted into haciendas.
Rio Blanco strike (1907): a significant labor confrontation that resulted in deaths and highlighted the government’s willingness to use force against workers.
Cananea strike (1906): mining workers protested wage disparities and working conditions, signaling organized labor resistance.
Silver devaluation and wage gaps contributed to rising unrest among local workers.
Oil and rail concessions created a structural dependency on foreign capital and exclusion from a fair share of national wealth.

Timeline snapshot: major phases in the revolution (highlights from pages 2–3)

1857: Constitution of 1857; liberal reforms to curtail Church power (La Reforma).
1876–1911: Porfirio Díaz’s extended rule, modernization, and political dominance.
1910: Madero’s Plan de San Luis Potosí challenges Díaz; wide opposition to re-election and call for democratic reforms.
1911: Díaz resigns; Madero becomes provisional president; Zapata and Villa mobilize regional forces; Carranza begins to form a counter-government.
1913–1914: Huerta’s coup ousts Madero; Mexican politics plunge into civil conflict; international reactions and shifting recognitions.
1914–1915: Aguascalientes Convention and realignments; split among revolutionary factions (Carranza, Villa, Zapata, Obregón).
1917: Constitutional Convention culminates in the 1917 Constitution, addressing land reform, labor rights, education, and Church–state relations.
1920–1924: Obregón’s presidency; stabilization, consolidation of labor support (CROM), and limited agrarian reform; relative political continuity after civil conflict.
1924–1928: Calles’s presidency; Maximato era (Calles effectively controls through puppet presidents); Cristero War (1926–1929) tests church-state power.
1934–1940: Lázaro Cárdenas implements sweeping reforms: mass land redistribution to ejidos, strengthening labor unions (CTM), and nationalizing the oil industry in 1938; creation of PEMEX and the PRM.

The 1917 Constitution: its structure, aims, and significance

Background: The 1917 Constitution followed three years of revolutionary upheaval and built on prior liberal legacies (1857) while expanding social justice provisions.
Key articles and their significance:
- Article 27 (Land and natural resources): Ownership rests with the nation; the state can redistribute land for public interest; restricts foreign ownership of land and minerals; strengthens state control over subsoil rights. This aimed to address Zapata’s agrarian demands and reduce foreign domination of land and minerals. $ext{Land and subsoil rights are nationalized under Article } 27$
- Article 123 (Labor reform): Legalized union rights; established an eight-hour workday, paid holidays, minimum wage, wage protection, overtime pay, maternity leave, and equal pay for equal work; banned child labor; mandated safe working conditions. This became a foundational legal framework for labor movements across industries. $8 ext{ hour workday}, ext{ minimum wage}, ext{ maternity leave}, ext{ equal pay}$
- Article 24 (Freedom of religion): Religious freedom with limits on church property ownership; separation of church and state, with church property constrained to worship and not for profit. This was a core anti-clerical reform.
- Article 130 (Church-state relations): Formal separation of church and state; restrictions on church personnel’s political rights; limits on clerical influence in public life; church governance in public spheres reduced.
- Article 3 (Education): Secular, free, mandatory education; separation of education from religious control; the state shoulders education policy; rapid modernization of schooling (Vasconcelos, Casauranc, Bassols era). $ext{Education secular and free; mandatory nationwide}$
- Article 4 (Gender equality): Introduced gender equality under the law.
- Articles 6–10 (Freedom of expression, petition, arms, and due process): Expanded civil liberties and public participation in governance.
- Article 22 (Prohibition of cruel punishment) and Articles 32–33 (Citizenship and foreign nationals): Redefined citizenship and limited the rights of foreigners in certain aspects of public life.
Enactment and enforcement: The Constitution was progressive for its time, though its enforcement varied under different presidents; the document provided a comprehensive framework for land reform, labor rights, education, and church-state separation.

Post-revolution leadership and their aims (overview of major figures)

Francisco I. Madero (leader of the early post-Díaz opposition):
- Aim: End Díaz’s dictatorship, establish democracy, free elections; empower peasants with political freedoms, though not immediate radical social reform.
- Methods: Mobilization via Plan de San Luis Potosí; coalition-building with elites and reformers; attempted to balance reform with political pragmatism.
- Challenge: Limited social commitment to land reform; faced opposition from Porfiristas and local elites; ultimately overthrown during the La Decena Trágica (Ten Tragic Days) leading to his assassination.
Emiliano Zapata (South, Morelos) and Plan de Ayala:
- Aim: Return land to peasants; dramatic agrarian reform; end hacienda-era landholding patterns.
- Methods: Guerrilla tactics; plan rhetoric that framed revolutionary aims in land restitution.
- Significance: His vision shaped agrarian reform discourse and fed into Article 27 interpretations in the constitution.
Pancho Villa (North, Division del Norte) and Orozco (Northern rebel leader):
- Aim: Political power and regional reform; support for peasant and laborer communities, but with a distinct political program that often clashed with Carranza’s centralist approach.
- Methods: Military campaigns, strategic battles (e.g., Ciudad Juárez, Celaya later in the revolution).
Venustiano Carranza (Constitutionalists):
- Aim: Restore constitutional order; draft and enact a progressive constitution; maintain a centralized federal order with a strong presidency but under legal norms.
- Methods: Political diplomacy, military strategy, and coalition-building; chaired the 1917 Constitutional Convention and guided the drafting of the new constitution.
Victoriano Huerta (Rebel general, 1913–14):
- Aim: Hold power through a military regime; maintain status quo by force.
- Methods: Suppression of opposition, dissolution of Congress, reliance on the Federal Army; ultimately failed due to lack of U.S. recognition and internal opposition.
Álvaro Obregón (1920–1924):
- Aim: Stabilize post-revolution Mexico; build political legitimacy; incorporate organized labor into a supportive framework; implement limited land reform.
- Methods: Strategic alliances with labor (CROM), rotation of generals to prevent regional power blocs, and pragmatic social reforms.
Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–1928; Maximato 1928–1934):
- Aim: Centralize authority, create a disciplined party system (PNR) to sustain post-revolution reforms.
- Methods: Built a powerful political machine, confronted the Catholic Church leading to the Cristero War; established a pro-government labor union network (CROM); nurtured the party system that would shape Mexican politics for decades.
Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–1940):
- Aim: Consolidate revolutionary gains, broaden base of support among peasants and workers, nationalize strategic resources, and strengthen state-led development.
- Methods: Aggressive land reform (ejidos), alliance-building with labor outside traditional unions (CTM), oil nationalization in 1938 with PEMEX; formation of the Mexican Revolutionary Party (PRM) in 1938 to reflect new social coalitions.

The road to the 1917 Constitution: internal power shifts and the convention

1910–1914: The revolution intensifies as factions emerge (Madero, Zapata, Villa, Carranza, Huerta).
1914: Huerta seizes power; international diplomacy and U.S. reactions shape the legitimacy of various leaders.
1915–1916: Aguascalientes Convention attempts to broker a political settlement among main leaders but ends in factional splits and the emergence of the Constitutionalists under Carranza and Obregón.
31 January 1917: The final signing of the Constitution in Querétaro after debates among moderates and radicals; Carranza plays a central role but some factions (Zapata, Villa) are marginalized in formal negotiations.
5 February 1917: The text is released; Carranza calls for elections and assumes the presidency in May 1917 with the new constitutional framework.

The social and economic reforms embedded in the Constitution and early post-revolutionary state

Land reform and resource control:
- Article 27 (land and subsoil rights) asserted nationalist ownership of land and minerals and permitted redistribution in the public interest; aimed to curb foreign land ownership and empower the state to regulate natural resources.
- Ejidos and land redistribution would become central tools for rural reform under subsequent presidents.
Labor rights and social justice:
- Article 123 guaranteed workers’ rights, including an eight-hour day, fair wages, overtime pay, and safe working conditions; support for unions and collective bargaining mechanisms.
Church reform and secular education:
- Article 24 (freedom of religion with limits on church property) and Article 130 (church-state separation; limits on clerical influence) reconfigured the role of the Church in society and politics.
- Article 3 established secular, state-directed education; education became a vehicle for national identity, social cohesion, and modernization.
Education reform and culture:
- The revolution prioritized secular and national education, literacy campaigns, and the promotion of science and civic values.
- Muralist movement and cultural projects (post-revolution) played a role in forging a national identity and educating the masses about history and social justice.
Economic policy and state-building:
- The constitution provided a framework for state-led development, agrarian reform, and the regulation of foreign investment in strategic sectors.
- Post-1920s governments pursued state-building through coalitions with labor and peasants, balancing capitalist development with social reform.

Post-revolution power shifts: the Obregón–Calles–Maximato–Cárdenas arc

Obregón (1920–1924):
- Consolidated power through political deftness and labor alliances; implemented Agrarian Regulatory Law (1922) and limited land reform to maintain political stability while appeasing peasantry.
- Strengthened labor organization via CROM; maintained a cautious approach to land reform by distributing ejidos rather than breaking up large estates wholesale.
Calles (1924–1928):
- Built a national party (PNR) and centralized authority; engaged in a prolonged conflict with the Catholic Church, culminating in the Cristero War (1926–1929).
- After internal conflicts and the assassination of Obregón, Calles’s influence continued through the Maximato era, with puppeted presidents controlled by Calles’s machinery.
Maximato (1928–1934):
- A period in which Calles effectively controlled Mexico via a succession of presidents loyal to him; political systems were reorganized to sustain revolutionary gains while stabilizing the economy during global turmoil.
Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–1940):
- Ended the Maximato by consolidating power and breaking Calles’s political hold; implemented far-reaching reforms in land, labor, and oil.
- Nationalized the oil industry in 1938, creating PEMEX and asserting sovereign control over subsoil resources; formed the PRM to reflect broad social coalitions (military, workers, peasants, and government employees).

Agrarian reform, labor, and social policy in the long post-revolution era

Land reform and ejidos:
- Cárdenas redistributed approximately $1.2 imes 10^6 ext{ hectares}$ to peasants and created extensive ejidos that enabled small-scale farming and local control.
- Establishment of agricultural banks and supportive institutions to finance land use, irrigation, and farming equipment; aim to empower rural communities and reduce dependence on grandes haciendas.
Labor and unions:
- CROM (Confederación Regional de Obreros Mexicanos) under Morones expanded to roughly $1.2 imes 10^6$ members by 1924, with the CTM later supplanting it as the dominant labor federation under Cárdenas’s leadership.
- Strikes in the mid- to late-1930s (notably railway and oil sectors) pressed for higher wages and better working conditions; Cárdenas used labor pressure to justify state intervention and sector reform.
Education and culture:
- Octave expansion of public education; Vasconcelos’s early education reforms and the SEP (Secretariat of Public Education) promoted nationwide literacy, rural schooling, and cultural projects.
- The muralist movement (Orozco, Rivera, Siqueiros) built public art to educate and unify citizens around revolutionary ideals; promoted national identity and social critique.
Cristero War and church-state conflicts:
- The 1926–1929 Cristero rebellion tested the boundaries of secular reform and church autonomy; the state and church negotiated punctuated settlements with external mediation (U.S. and other actors).
Oil nationalization and PEMEX:
- Cárdenas (1938) nationalized the oil industry, creating the state-owned PEMEX to manage petroleum resources; compensation to foreign oil companies was negotiated and paid over several years, illustrating sovereignty and self-reliance in strategic sectors.
- The 1938 expropriation and subsequent international response reshaped Mexico’s economic diplomacy and influenced U.S.-Mexico relations during the late 1930s.
Reorganization of politics and party life:
- The PNR’s evolution into the PRM (1938) reflected a broad social coalition that integrated the military, labor, peasants, and government employees; later, that party system would evolve into the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI).

International relations and external influence on the revolution and its aftermath

U.S. recognition and support:
- The U.S. role fluctuated between non-recognition and strategic engagement; the Bucareli Accords (late 1920s) sought to protect U.S. investments while allowing Mexican sovereignty over land and resources, shaping oil policy and legal rights.
- The Pershing Expedition (1916–1917) to capture Pancho Villa on U.S. soil heightened tensions and impacted bilateral relations; U.S. policy oscillated between intervention and cautious diplomacy.
Oil interests and diplomacy:
- Foreign oil companies exercised leverage during the Maximato and early Calles years; post-1938 nationalization asserted Mexico’s sovereignty and redefined foreign investment terms.
Global economic context:
- The Great Depression strained Mexican public finances; labor and social reforms provided domestic resilience and stability, while international markets influenced trade and investment dynamics.

Cultural and societal impact of the revolution

Women and soldaderas:
- Soldaderas accompanied troops, performed logistics, healthcare, and occasionally fought; women increasingly pressed for rights beyond wartime roles, laying groundwork for later female political activism and employment.
Arts and education:
- The muralist movement (Orozco, Rivera, Siqueiros) and the broader cultural project promoted a national narrative that linked Indigenous identity, labor, and revolutionary ideals to a modern state.
Music and literature:
- Corridos became a vehicle for disseminating revolutionary stories; mariachi and regional music evolved with modernization and mass media; literature gave rise to the "Novels of the Revolution" genre, including works like Mariano Azuela’s The Underdogs.
Education reforms and social science:
- Government-built schools, libraries, and teacher training networks spread literacy and modern civic culture, embedding secular and nationalist values in education.

Key terms and concepts (glossary)

hacienda: Large estate (plantations/mines) where workers lived under debtor-like conditions and often faced coercive labor practices.
ejidos: Communal landholding system enacted post-revolution to grant land to peasants while allowing state control over resources.
Terrenos Baldíos: Unowned public lands targeted for privatization under Díaz’s regime, often redistributed to banks, landlords, and foreign investors.
científicos: Díaz-era technocratic advisers who promoted scientific planning and modernization but were associated with elite governance and repression.
Rurales: Rural police force used by the Díaz regime to maintain order and repress dissent.
Planes (Plan de San Luis Potosí, Ayala, Guadalupe, Veracruz, etc.): Foundational revolutionary programs and calls to action used by leaders to articulate aims and legitimize action.
Bucareli Accords: Diplomatic agreement between the U.S. and Mexico (late 1920s) governing U.S. investments and Mexican sovereignty.
PEMEX: Petróleos Mexicanos, the state-owned oil company established after nationalization.
PRM/PNR: Political parties formed to organize revolutionary coalitions; the PRM (1938) and its predecessors laid the groundwork for the modern party system.
Cristero War: 1926–1929 conflict between the Mexican state and Catholic rebellious factions; a key test of church-state relations in the post-revolutionary period.

Connections to broader themes and real-world relevance

The Mexican Revolution connected political reform, social justice, and national sovereignty to the global economy, demonstrating how reform could be achieved through a mix of constitutional change, land reform, labor rights, and strategic state-led industrial policy.
The era established state institutions (education, labor, land reform, energy policy) that shaped Mexico’s development trajectory for decades and influenced regional politics in Latin America.
The revolution generated a robust national culture (murals, literature, music) that reinforced a sense of national identity and legitimacy for the post-revolutionary state.

Conceptual reflections and possible exam prompts

To what extent did the 1917 Constitution address the political, economic, and social aims of the revolution? What limitations did it face in practice?
How did land reform, labor rights, and church-state relations interact to shape the post-revolutionary state?
Assess the legacies of Obregón, Calles, and Cárdenas in implementing revolutionary goals; what continuity and change can be observed across their administrations?
Explain the role of international contexts (U.S. diplomacy, oil interests, and global economic crises) in shaping Mexico’s revolutionary and post-revolutionary trajectories.
Discuss how cultural movements (muralists, music, literature) contributed to nation-building and political legitimacy after the revolution.

Quick-reference numerical anchors (for essay support)

Díaz’s long rule: $35 ext{ years}$ in office;ended by revolution.
Land dispossession under Terrenos Baldíos: approx. $5.0 imes 10^7 ext{ hectares}$ seized/redistributed.
Cananea and Rio Blanco strikes: pivotal labor protests signaling rising worker militancy; Rio Blanco casualties: $23$ dead in some reports.
Railways and oil: large-scale foreign concessions and tax breaks; oil production share of world market peaked at around $25 ext{ extpercent}$ of global production during the era.
Ejidos and land reform under Cárdenas: redistribution on the scale of $1.2 imes 10^6 ext{ hectares}$ ; establishment of agricultural support infrastructure.
Oil nationalization and compensation: $130 ext{ million USD}$ to foreign oil companies; PEMEX established to manage oil.
Post-revolution economic indicators (1935–1940): GNP growth ≈ $+25 ext{ extpercent}$ ; manufacturing ↑ ≈ $+50 ext{ extpercent}$ ; education and social programs expanded.

Exam-style prompts to study

Compare and contrast the aims and methods of Madero and Zapata in the early phase of the revolution. How did their visions conflict or align with the realities on the ground?
Explain how Article 27 and Article 123 of the 1917 Constitution addressed the core grievances that sparked the revolution. What were the successes and limitations of these provisions in practice?
Assess the role of foreign intervention and diplomacy (e.g., Bucareli Accords, Pershing expedition) in shaping Mexico’s post-revolutionary trajectory.
Evaluate the impact of Cárdenas’s oil nationalization on domestic development and international relations. Was it a sustainable policy for Mexico’s long-term growth?
Discuss the cultural dimension of the revolution—murals, corridos, and novels—and explain how these helped to construct a national identity and political legitimacy for the post-revolutionary state.

The Mexican Revolution (1910-1940) emerged from a global context of nationalism and industrialization, compounded by foreign investment and deep social inequalities under Porfirio Díaz's 35-year rule.

Core factors leading to the Revolution

The Porfiriato (1876-1911) was characterized by political repression, foreign investment in vital sectors (mining, oil, railways) at the expense of Mexican workers and peasants, and widespread land dispossession through policies like Terrenos Baldíos. Notable labor conflicts included the Rio Blanco (1907) and Cananea (1906) strikes.

Major phases and timeline

1910: Francisco I. Madero challenges Díaz with the Plan de San Luis Potosí.
1911: Díaz resigns; Madero briefly leads before being overthrown by Victoriano Huerta (1913).
1913-1917: Civil conflict intensifies with major factions including Emiliano Zapata (agrarian reform via Plan de Ayala), Pancho Villa (northern regional power), and Venustiano Carranza (Constitutionalists).
1917: The new Constitution is drafted in Querétaro, establishing foundational reforms.
1920-1940: Post-revolution leadership under Álvaro Obregón, Plutarco Elías Calles (leading to the Cristero War, 1926-1929, and the Maximato), and Lázaro Cárdenas consolidates reforms.

The 1917 Constitution: Structure and significance

A progressive document aiming to establish social justice and national sovereignty.

Article 27: Nationalized land and subsoil resources, allowing state redistribution (e.g., ejidos) and restricting foreign ownership. $\text{Land and subsoil rights are nationalized under Article } 27$
Article 123: Guaranteed extensive labor rights, including an eight-hour workday, minimum wage, and union rights. $8 \text{ hour workday}, \text{ minimum wage}, \text{ maternity leave}, \text{ equal pay}$
Articles 3, 24, 130: Established secular, free, mandatory education and defined the strict separation of church and state, limiting clerical influence and church property ownership. $\text{Education secular and free; mandatory nationwide}$

Post-revolution leadership and reforms

Madero: Sought democracy and political freedom, but lacked deep social reform commitment.
Zapata: Championed dramatic agrarian reform to return land to peasants.
Carranza: Aimed to restore constitutional order and led the drafting of the 1917 Constitution.
Obregón: Stabilized the country and aligned with labor (CROM).
Calles: Centralized power, established the PNR, and provoked the Cristero War; his influence continued through the Maximato.
Cárdenas (1934-1940): Sweeping reforms included mass land redistribution (ejidos – $1.2 \times 10^6 \text{ hectares}$ ), strengthening labor unions (CTM), and nationalizing the oil industry in 1938, creating PEMEX ( $130 \text{ million USD}$ compensation to foreign companies). He transformed the PNR into the PRM.

Social and economic impacts

Land reform through ejidos empowered rural communities.
Labor rights improved working conditions and fostered union growth.
Secular education promoted national identity, alongside cultural movements like the muralist movement (Orozco, Rivera, Siqueiros), corridos, and literature.

International context

U.S. recognition and interventions (e.g., Pershing Expedition, Bucareli Accords) significantly influenced Mexican policy, especially regarding oil interests. The Great Depression also strained public finances.

Cultural and societal impact

Women, notably the Soldaderas, played crucial roles. Arts and education fostered a national narrative linking Indigenous identity, labor, and revolutionary ideals to the modern state.