Prosocial Behavior, Its Association With Well-Being, and Predictors of Prosocial Behavior During the Coronavirus Disease Pandemic

Study Overview

Investigated prosocial behavior, well-being, and predictors during the COVID-19 lockdown.
Cross-sectional online survey with 9,496 participants from eight regions.

Key Findings

Prosocial behavior frequently reported during lockdowns.
Prosocial behavior consistently associated with better well-being across regions.
High perceived social support strongly associated with prosocial behavior.
High perceived stress, positive affect, and psychological flexibility also significant predictors.

Introduction

COVID-19 pandemic led to states of emergency and behavioral measures impacting daily life.
Lockdowns caused social isolation, conflicting with the need for social connection.
Selfish/antisocial behaviors (e.g., non-compliance, stockpiling) and racism were observed.
Prosocial responses included hygiene practices, self-isolation, and community support.
Trauma can generate shared identity, increasing empathy and motivation to help.

Prosocial Behavior and Well-Being

Prosocial behavior linked to better physical and mental health, greater longevity, and emotional well-being.
Buffers against negative effects of daily stress and increases feelings of belonging.
Driven by empathy and concern for others.
Social support linked to increased prosocial behavior; social exclusion decreases it.
High levels of perceived social support predict more prosocial behavior.

Psychological Flexibility

Cornerstone of health and well-being, protects from negative effects of stress and major life events.
Allows individuals to prioritize meaningful areas in life and values.
High levels positively associated with prosocial behavior.

Perceived Stress

Stress can elicit prosocial behavior as a coping mechanism.
High levels of perceived stress positively related to prosocial behavior.

Positive Affect

Positive mood associated with prosocial behavior.
Prosocial behavior is a strategy to maintain positive mood.
Contributes to prosocial behavior during times of elevated stress.

Present Study Aims

Examine the extent of prosocial behaviors during COVID-19 lockdowns.
Investigate the relationship between prosocial behavior and well-being.
Identify predictors of prosocial behavior during the pandemic.
Investigate region-specific differences.

Materials and Methods

Part of the COVID-Impact project, an international cross-sectional online survey.
Data collected April-June 2020 via social media and university lists.
Well-being measured using the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF).
- 14 items, 6-point Likert scale, Cronbach’s alpha of 0.91.
Prosocial behavior measured using six items from the Prosocialness Scale for Adults (PSA).
- 5-point Likert scale, Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83.
Sociodemographic predictors: age, gender, education, employment, marital status, living situation.
Quarantine/Self-Isolation characteristics: time in lockdown, impact on finances and daily activities.
Social Support measured by the Oslo 3-item Social Support Scale (OSSS-3), Cronbach’s alpha of 0.54.
- Classified into low, moderate, and high levels.
Psychological Flexibility measured by a 6-item instrument (Psy-Flex), Cronbach’s alpha of 0.84.
Perceived Stress measured by the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89.
- Classified into low, moderate, and high stress.
Positive Affect measured by the PANAS subscale, Cronbach’s alpha of 0.90.

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics: frequencies, means, SDs, medians, and IQRs.
Countries grouped into eight geo-cultural regions.
- Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Northern Europe, Western Asia, East Asia, Latin America, North America.
Linear regression to compare regional means to overall mean; Cohen’s d for effect size.
Bivariate correlation analysis (r) to assess associations.
- (\leq 0.10): very small, (\leq 0.20): small, (\leq 0.30): moderate, (\leq 0.40): large, (>0.40): very large effect sizes.
Simple linear regressions: prosocial behavior as predictor, well-being as outcome.
Multiple regression analyses: prosocial behavior as dependent variable.
Standardized regression coefficients (Beta) with 95% CI.
Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) to check for multicollinearity.
R software version 1.3.959 used for computations.

Results

Sample comprised N = 9,496 participants from 60 countries in eight regions.
Prosocial behavior occurred often (M = 22.8, SD = 4.2).
- Volunteering activities (M = 3.2, SD = 1.2) and spending time with lonely friends (M = 3.4, SD = 1.0) reported less frequently.
- Sharing with friends (M = 3.9, SD = 0.92), willingness to help (M = 4.1, SD = 0.8), trying to help others (M = 4.1, SD = 0.8), and empathy (M = 4.1, SD = 0.8) reported more frequently.
Regional variations: Southern Europe and Western Asia reported slightly higher; Eastern Europe and Eastern Asia lower.
Moderate association between prosocial behavior and well-being (r = 0.32).

Regression Analysis

Prosocial behavior explained significant variance in well-being: F(1,9483) = 1,096, p < 0.001, R^2 adjusted = 0.104.
- Regression coefficient: B = 1.07, CI (1.01, 1.13); (\beta = 0.32), CI (0.30, 0.34), p < 0.001.
Prosocial behavior significantly positively predicted well-being in all regions.
Well-being showed strong positive correlation with psychological flexibility and positive affect.
Moderate to strong negative association with perceived stress.
Prosocial behavior showed moderate positive correlations with well-being, social support, and positive affect.
Weak positive was shown with psychological flexibility, and weak negative correlation with perceived stress.

Predictors

High perceived social support best explained prosocial behavior.
Higher levels of perceived stress and positive affect also contributed.
Female gender, being retired, and living with friends/roommates were positive predictors.
Psychological flexibility, being unemployed, living with parents, and living with roommates also significant.
Living with own family, being in a relationship, and being widowed were negative predictors.

Regional Variations

Strongest predictors of prosocial behavior were high levels of perceived social support in all regions.
Second strongest predictor was high level of perceived stress in most regions.
Positive affect was a strong predictor, followed by psychological flexibility was also positive across most regions.

Discussion

Prosocial behavior was frequently reported during lockdowns, supporting the idea that people support each other during social dilemmas.
Helping behavior might occur universally.
Lower levels in Eastern Europe and East Asia possibly due to cultural, historic, and political factors.
Spending time with lonely friends and volunteering occurred least frequently due to social restrictions.
Prosocial behavior consistently associated with well-being across regions.

Implications

Doing good to others feels good; emotional rewards are inherent.
The link is robust to emotional and social intricacies of a global crisis.
Female gender, being retired, being unemployed, and living with parents positively associated with prosocial behavior.
Having own family was negatively associated due to time constraints.
Prosocial behavior strongly associated with perceived social support.
Perceived social stress, positive affect, and psychological flexibility connected to elevated prosocial behavior.
Regional variations existed in the relationship of perceived stress.

Societal Impact

Prosocial behaviors drive meaningful change on a societal level.
Counteract adverse effects of the pandemic on mental health and well-being.
Prosocial behavior as a therapeutic target and for policy/intervention in disease containment.
Prosocial emotions can instigate behavior change.

Limitations

Cross-sectional study design, self-report measure, varying sample sizes per region.

Conclusion

Prosocial behavior consistently occurred across the world and was associated with better well-being during pandemic-induced lockdowns.
Future policy efforts should incorporate social networks and psychological competencies to facilitate prosocial behavior.