Study Notes on the Arab-Israeli Dispute and the Yom Kippur War of 1973

The Cold War was a global confrontation spanning multiple continents and regions.
Superpowers (primarily the US and USSR) were wary of direct conflict that could escalate to nuclear war.
In lieu of direct confrontation, superpowers were engaged in a relentless battle for the ‘hearts and minds’ in the developing world.
- The process of de-colonization post-1945 in Asia and Africa led to many newly independent states.
- This created an intensified superpower rivalry for influence in what was termed the Third World.

The Yom Kippur War serves as a critical illustration of the intersection between superpower ambitions and nationalism in developing states.

Defining the Middle East Region
The Yom Kippur War
  - Long-term causes
  - Short-term causes
  - Course and outcome of the Yom Kippur War
International Impact of Yom Kippur Conflict

The Middle East in this context includes:
  - Arab countries of south-west Asia and North Africa
  - Israel
  - Iran

British Mandate of Palestine
  - 1922: The League of Nations granted a mandate to the UK to govern Palestine after the Ottoman Empire's defeat in World War I.
  - The Jewish population in Palestine grew significantly during the inter-war period, leading to increased tensions and clashes.
  - 1947: The end of the British mandate coincided with the UN General Assembly's approval of a two-state partition plan for Palestine.
Founding of Israel (1948)
- Prime Minister David Ben Gurion declared the State of Israel in 1948.
The 1948 Arab-Israeli War
  - Israel was attacked by Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria.
  - The war resulted in approximately 10,000 deaths.
  - Israel achieved a victory, expelling or causing 711,000 Palestinian Arabs to flee, creating a significant refugee crisis.
  - The 1949 Green Armistice Line was established following the war.
The Palestinian Exodus
- A total of 711,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled during the 1948 war, with no right to return.
1956 Suez Crisis
- In 1956, Egypt attempted to nationalize the Suez Canal.
- Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt, leading to a ceasefire and the establishment of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF).

Arab Humiliation following the 1967 Six Day War:
  - In this conflict, Israel seized significant territories:
    - The Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt.
    - The West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan.
    - The Golan Heights from Syria.
The war started with a preemptive Israeli attack against Egypt and Syria, demonstrating Israel's military capabilities and leading to a decline of Pan-Arabism.
UN Security Council Resolution 242
- Adopted on November 22, 1967, it called for a just and lasting peace in the Middle East, emphasizing Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories and respect for sovereignty in the region.
Increased Soviet Support for Egypt after the Six Day War:
- Egyptian President Anwar Sadat signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union.
- Sadat, frustrated with the slow rate of Soviet arms deliveries, expelled all Soviet military advisers from Egypt, prompting the USSR to enhance their military support for Egypt.

On October 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria launched a coordinated assault on Israel, achieving complete tactical surprise.
The war lasted until October 25, 1973 and was marked by intense combat, with high casualties and material losses.
This conflict brought superpowers to the brink of a nuclear showdown, highlighting the fragility of the Soviet-American détente policy.

During this conflict, superpowers functioned as both partners and adversaries:
  - Partnership: Worked together in the UN for ceasefire resolutions.
  - Adversarial Tensions: The USSR refrained from warning the US about the impending Egyptian and Syrian attacks and supplied arms to their allies post-initiation of conflict.
  - This competition led to escalated military tensions and approaches towards nuclear posturing before a ceasefire was established.

Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev threatened unilateral intervention to protect the encircled Egyptian army if Israel did not respect a ceasefire.
- U.S. response included issuing a worldwide Defence Condition Three alert.
- On October 25, another UNSC resolution ended the Yom Kippur War.

The conflict did not yield a definitive winner; however, it marked a significant psychological victory for the Arab states.
Economic Warfare: Arab oil-producing nations employed economic warfare against Western countries for the first time, wielding oil as a weapon with notable efficacy.

The Yom Kippur War illustrated:
  - To the Arab world, Israel was not invincible, but it remained a resilient player regionally.
  - For Israel, it revealed limitations in relying mainly on military force for national security.
  - The war deepened US entrenchment in Middle Eastern affairs while undermining Soviet influence.
The Sinai was returned to Egypt in 1982 as per a peace treaty established between Israel and Egypt in 1979.
- Following the treaty, Sadat was assassinated in 1981 and succeeded by Hosni Mubarak.
- Israel engaged in the disengagement from Gaza in September 2005, yet formally annexed East Jerusalem in 1980 and maintains occupation over the West Bank and Golan Heights.

While US-Soviet détente managed to endure the Yom Kippur War, its fragility became evident.
Superpower contests for regional influence remained intense, and events in the Middle East fell largely outside direct control.
The Yom Kippur War revealed that regional actors like Israel and Egypt were willing to engage with superpower conflicts to meet local interests rather than superpower objectives.