Civilisations of the Ancient World: Macedon and the Hellenistic Period

Course Logistics and Late Penalties

• The Major Assignment is due today.

• Late penalties are strictly enforced in accordance with University policy for written work submitted after $11:59\,pm$ on the due date.

• A deduction of $2\%$ of the maximum mark applies for each calendar day the submission is late.

• After ten calendar days of lateness, a mark of zero will be awarded.

• If an extension has been granted, these penalties apply after the new submission date.

• Students who have received an extension that is not recognized should contact the department via email.

Evolution of Greek Sculpture: Archaic to Classical

• The transition in Greek sculpture is marked by a move toward realism and dynamic movement, away from the rigid forms of the Archaic period ($590-580\,BC$ and $540-530\,BC$).

• The Kritios Boy ($480\,BC$) and the Harmodius and Aristogeiton group ($477/476\,BC$) represent early steps toward the Classical style.

• Key examples of severe and early Classical style include:

  • Zeus/Poseidon ($460\,BC$).

  • Riace Bronzes: Found off the coast of Italy in $1972$. These consist of two soldiers of unknown origin dated to $460-450\,BC$.

• Bronze Sculptures:

  • Advantages of bronze over marble include its lighter weight and superior tensile strength.

  • These properties allow for more complex and fluid "movement" in the figures.

  • The adoption of bronze was facilitated by an increase in money and trade.

  • Technical details identified in historical finds include glass eyes (from Dodona) and clay remnants inside cast limbs.

Polyklitos and the Canon of Beauty

• Polyklitos of Argos was a central figure in Greek sculpture mid-$4th\,century\,BC$.

• The Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), dated to circa $440\,BC$, is known primarily through Roman copies.

• Polyklitos attempted to create the ultimate male body through a set of rules called "The Canon."

  • The Canon used mathematical equations as the base for the perfect body.

  • A specific ratio dictated that the head should be $\frac{1}{7}$ the size of the body.

• The Chiastic Pose (or Contrapposto):

  • The body is depicted as a series of "battling opposites."

  • One foot is planted firmly on the ground while the other implies movement.

  • The left arm is relaxed while the right arm is flexed.

  • The posture represents the shifting and turning inherent in a natural standing position.

• Diadoumenos (Youth tying a fillet around his head):

  • Bronze original dated to $430\,BC$; over $40$ Roman copies exist.

  • Features the famous Polyklitos style of contrapposto where hips and shoulders are tilted at different angles.

Archaeological Context of the Early Greek World

• Lefkandi (Toumba burial site on Euboia):

  • Challenges the notion that the "Dark Age" was characterized solely by depopulation, isolation, and reduced living standards.

  • The site exhibits social stratification, centralized organization, monumental construction, conspicuous displays of wealth, and widespread trading contacts.

  • Specific finds include a Centaur figure and high-quality gold necklaces.

• Colonization and Expansion ($8th-7th\,century\,BC$):

  • Greek and Phoenician expansion covered Italy, Africa, and the Mediterranean.

  • Pithekoussai: established in the early-to-mid $8th\,century\,BC$ by Euboeans. It served as a small, easily defended trading colony (emporio) and containing a variety of materials.

• Definitions and the Polis:

  • Kouros (plural: kouroi) refers to male sculptures.

  • Kore (plural: korai) refers to female sculptures.

  • Standard elements of the Polis (astu) include the Acropolis ("high city"), Agora ("market place"), Cemetery (located outside walls), Residential sector, Sacred zones, and Fortification walls.

  • The physical layout was often independent of the political structure (oligarchy, democracy, tyranny, or monarchy).

• Panhellenic Sanctuaries:

  • Olympic Games founded in $776\,BC$ (Zeus).

  • Pythian Games at Delphi founded in $582\,BC$ (Apollo).

  • Isthmian Games at Isthmia established in $582\,BC$ (Poseidon).

  • Nemean Games established in $573\,BC$ (Zeus).

The Athenian Acropolis and the Peloponnesian War

• The Peloponnesian War ($432-404\,BC$) was preceded by high tension due to the Delian League.

• Pericles controlled the Athenian Empire, utilizing funds from the Delian League to rebuild Athens after the Persian wars.

• The Parthenon ($447-432\,BC$):

  • A Doric temple with Ionic features (such as an Ionic frieze).

  • It is decorated with Metopes and a Pediment.

  • Sustained heavy damage on September $26$, $1687$, when Venetians attacked the Ottomans, who were storing gunpowder inside.

• Optical Corrections (Entasis) in the Parthenon:

  • The stylobate is convex: $6.5\,cm$ over $30.8\,m$ on the East/West flank, and $12\,cm$ over $69.5\,m$ on the North/South flank.

  • Corner columns are thicker by $6\,cm$ and placed $25\,cm$ closer together.

  • All columns lean inwards by approximately $7\,cm$ toward the center of the building.

• The Parthenon Frieze and Statuary:

  • Continual frieze of $160\,m$ depicting the Panathenaic procession (or possibly the Marathon dead).

  • The center scene depicts gods flanking a Priest receiving fabric from a child.

  • Athena Parthenos: A statue made by Pheidias from ivory and approximately $1100\,kg$ of gold. The gold was designed to be removable if needed.

• The Erechtheion ($421-406\,BC$):

  • Dedicated to Poseidon-Erechtheus, Boutes, Hephaistos, and Athena.

  • Built on multiple levels and features the first use of Eleusian blue limestone for a frieze.

  • The Karyatids: Six female figures functioning as columns. Their straight dress suggests strength; one relaxed leg suggests they do not buckle under the weight. They may represent the daughters of Kekrops or the six invasions by Sparta and its allies ($432/1-425\,BC$).

• Temple of Athena Nike ($427-424\,BC$):

  • Tetrastyle amphiprostyle in the Ionic order with monolithic columns.

  • Columns built in a ratio of $7:1$ rather than the traditional $9:1$, making them appear "heavy."

The Rise of Macedon and the 4th Century

• The $4th\,century\,BC$ saw a power vacuum after the Peloponnesian War, with power shifting between Sparta, Athens, and Thebes.

• Battle of Chaironeia ($338\,BC$): King Philip II of Macedon defeated the Athenians and Thebans.

• King Philip II was assassinated in $336\,BC$, and his son Alexander inherited the throne at age $20$.

• Macedonian Monarchy and Pella:

  • Pella was the capital after $400\,BC$.

  • The House of Dionysos is the largest private house, featuring an andron (male reception room) and elaborate pebble mosaics.

  • The "Lion Hunt" mosaic (circa $325-300\,BCE$) measures $4.9 \times 3.2\,m$ and is thought to represent Alexander the Great with Hephaestion or Craterus.

  • Techniques in mosaics included the use of shading (terracotta strips for outlines) and lead for decorative elements like eyes.

The Royal Tombs at Vergina (Aigai)

• Excavated by Manolis Andronikos between $1976-1979$.

• Vergina Tomb II (The "Great Tomb"):

  • Main chamber contained a male cremation burial with bones wrapped in purple cloth.

  • Remains were placed in a gold chest (larnax) decorated with the Macedonian star/symbol and a golden oak leaf wreath.

  • The tomb contained a silver banqueting set and a couch with ivory inlay heads.

  • Armor included a gilded iron corslet, a ceremonial gold and ivory shield, and a gorytos (gold sheath for bows and arrows).

  • Evidence for Philip II: Skull reconstruction shows damage to the right eye consistent with historical accounts, and the presence of greaves of uneven length (Philip II was lame).

• Tomb at Agios Athanasios (circa $300\,BCE$):

  • Features a frieze of a funerary banquet and guards in Macedonian dress at the entrance.

The Hellenistic Period and Monumentalism

• The Hellenistic Period dates from $323\,BC$ (Alexander's death) to $31\,BC$ (Death of Cleopatra/Battle of Actium).

• Division of the Empire:

  • Antigonids: Macedon and Greece (Capital: Pella).

  • Seleucids: The East (Capital: Antioch).

  • Ptolemies: Egypt (Capital: Alexandria).

  • Attalids: Asia Minor (Capital: Pergamon).

• Characteristics of the Era:

  • Spread of Greek culture, ideas, and language (cosmopolitanism).

  • Growing divide between rich and poor.

  • Development of "Monumentalism": expand basic Greek forms to a "god scale."

• Great Altar of Zeus at Pergamon ($180-159\,BC$):

  • Dedicated by Eumenes II to celebrate a victory over the Gauls.

  • Features a gigantomachy frieze ($113\,m$ long, $2.3\,m$ high) in bold high relief that extends into the viewer's space.

• Temple of Apollo at Didyma (circa $300\,BC$):

  • Massive Ionic temple measuring $109.38 \times 51.14\,m$ with columns $19.7\,m$ high.

  • Entry is through an angled barrel vault ($20\,m$), leading from darkness into a sun-lit, unroofed interior.

  • This design was meant to overwhelm and surprise visitors as part of a mystery cult experience.

Alexander the Great: Iconography and Self-Promotion

• Alexander’s busts (specifically from Pergamon, $2nd\,century\,BC$) are characterized by the "anastole" hairstyle resembling a lion's mane, and being beardless.

• Beardlessness in royal portraits became a standard until Hadrian in $117\,AD$.

• Coinage symbolism:

  • One leg behind the other on Zeus figures typically indicates coins minted after Alexander’s death.

  • Ptolemaic coins often depicted Alexander wearing an elephant scalp, symbolizing his conquest of India.

  • Coins also depicted him holding a thunderbolt, associating him with divinity.

The Rise of Rome and Conclusion

• The $3rd\,century\,BC$ saw the first conflicts between Rome and the Greek world.

• $168\,BC$: Antigonids lose the Battle of Pydna.

• $146\,BC$: Rome annexes Macedon; Corinth is destroyed.

• $133\,BC$: The Attalids bequeath their kingdom to Rome.

• $86\,BC$: Athens is sacked by Sulla.

• $65\,BC$: The Seleucid Empire falls to Rome.

• $31\,BC$: Battle of Actium marks the end of the Ptolemies and the Hellenistic Period.