Highlights: Mid-17th to Early 18th Centuries

Overseas Activities

- Regions of Interest: England had overseas activities in Asia, the Americas, and Africa, along with distinct actions in Scotland.

Elizabethan Activities

- Explorers and Expeditions:

- Notable figures include Hawkins, Drake, Frobisher, and Davis who undertook voyages in the late 16th century.

- Roanoke (Virginia): First attempted English colony, but it failed with little documentation on its activities.

- 17th Century Colonization:

- Relied on a company system where groups obtained charters from the crown to govern their ventures, fostering self-governance and independent decision-making during expeditions.

Overseas Colonies

- Asia: Focused on trade, especially spices, led to tensions with the Dutch. The East India Company was central to these efforts.

- Americas:

- Established colonies focused on agriculture and trade, particularly with the Virginia Company and its governance model.

- Jamestown (1607): The first permanent British colony; tobacco farming became crucial for trade.

- Subsequent colonies included Bermuda (1612), puritanical Plymouth Colony (1620), and Massachusetts Bay Company (1630).

- The Navigation Acts of the 1650s centralized trade with England, marking a significant development in the British Empire.

English Colonists:

- Dramatic population growth from 1610-1650, with many settlers being indentured servants. By 1700, 400,000 English lived in the American colonies.

Africa Colonization:

- No successful English trading firms in Africa; the England’s Guinea Company faced numerous challenges.

- A 1698 act allowed all merchants to trade with Africa.

### Scottish Activities:

- Attempts to colonize regions like New Scotland and Darien (Panama) were primarily unsuccessful, often due to financial issues and competitive pressures.

Shifting Kingdoms and Political Turmoil

- Charles I: Sought absolutism and ruled without Parliament from 1629 until the English Civil War began in 1642.

- His marriage to Henrietta Maria heightened religious tensions and societal divides.

### Civil War (1642-1651):

- Cavaliers (royalist forces) vs Roundheads (Parliamentary forces, led by Oliver Cromwell).

- The execution of Charles I in 1649 marked a historic first—the public execution of a monarch, leading to the establishment of the Commonwealth.

Oliver Cromwell’s Rule:

- Abolished the monarchy and ruled as Lord Protector until his death in 1658. He sought to enforce Protestantism across England.

- Following his death, a power vacuum ensued, leading to the Convention Parliament and the eventual restoration of monarchy.

### Charles II and Restoration:

- Charles II was recalled to the throne, marking a period of religious compromise and efforts to punish those involved in his father’s execution.

- The 1673 Test Act aimed to ensure Protestant loyalty within political and military offices as concerns about Catholic influence arose.

Political Parties:

- Development of the Conservative (Tory) and Whig parties set the foundation for political engagement, reflecting the growing divide in support for the king and religious governance.