Respondent Conditioning and APA Style Guidelines

APA 7th Edition Style & Resource Guidelines

• Mississippi State University Library Resources:

  • Library Website: https://www.library.msstate.edu/
  • Recommended Journals for Behavior Analysis & School Psychology Articles:
    • Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
    • School Psychology Review
    • School Psychology Quarterly
    • Psychology in the Schools
    • Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions
    • Journal of Evidence-based Interventions
    • Behavior Modification
    • Behavioral Interventions
    • Child and Family Behavior Therapy
    • Focus on Autism and Developmental Disabilities
    • Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities

• APA 7th Edition Formatting Key Changes:

  • In-Text Citations:
    • For works with 3 or more authors: Use the et al. format immediately on first citation.
      • Example (3 authors): Hailey E. Ripple, Hallie M. Smith, & Kayla Bates-Brantley becomes (Ripple et al., 2021).
    • For works with 2 authors: Cite both authors.
      • Example: Hailey E. Ripple and Hallie M. Smith becomes (Ripple & Smith, 2021).
  • Student vs. Professional Requirements: Distinct formatting rules separate student papers from professional manuscript submissions (e.g., modified running head requirements).
  • Running Head: Simplified rules for student papers; running head header eliminated for student papers.
  • Headings: Updated structural levels and visual formatting guidelines.
  • Tables and Figures: Standardized uniform formatting rules across titles, numbering, and note placements.
  • DOI Formatting: DOIs formatted as explicit hyperlinked URLs starting with https://doi.org/ or queried via https://doi.crossref.org/simpleTextQuery.
  • Recommended Online Style Guides:
    • Scribbr APA 7th Edition Changes: https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/apa-seventh-edition-changes/
    • Purdue OWL Formatting Guide: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html

Introduction to Respondent Conditioning

• Definition and Terminology:

  • Respondent conditioning is historically known as Classical Conditioning or Pavlovian Conditioning.     
  • Respondent behaviors are controlled or elicited by antecedent stimuli.
  • The verb "elicit" is used exclusively when describing respondent behavior.
  • Respondent conditioning operates entirely by manipulating antecedent stimuli to establish a Stimulus-Response ($\text{S-R}$) relationship.

• Classical vs. Operant Conditioning:

  • Respondent conditioning focuses strictly on antecedent stimulus manipulation ($\text{S-R}$ relationship).
  • Operant conditioning focuses on consequence manipulation following a behavior ($\text{R-S}$ relationship / three-term contingency).

Core Components of Classical Conditioning

• 1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US):

  • A stimulus that naturally elicits a specific response without any prior learning, history, or training.
  • Examples:
    • Food in the mouth eliciting salivation.
    • A puff of air delivered to the eye eliciting an eye blink.

• 2. Unconditioned Response (UR):

  • An unlearned, automatic reflex response elicited by an Unconditioned Stimulus ($\text{US}$).
  • Represented formulaically as:         $\text{US} \rightarrow \text{UR}$$\text{Sight of Food} \rightarrow \text{Salivation}$

• Human Unconditioned Reflexes:

  • $\text{Object touching infant's lips} \rightarrow \text{Sucking}$
  • $\text{Food in mouth} \rightarrow \text{Salivation}$
  • $\text{Sensation on throat} \rightarrow \text{Coughing}$
  • $\text{Air in eye} \rightarrow \text{Eye Blinking}$
  • $\text{Light in eye} \rightarrow \text{Pupil Constriction}$
  • $\text{Loud Noise} \rightarrow \text{Startle response}$
  • $\text{High Temperature} \rightarrow \text{Sweating}$
  • $\text{Low Temperature} \rightarrow \text{Shivering}$
  • $\text{Nasal Irritation} \rightarrow \text{Sneezing}$
  • $\text{Hot Object touching skin} \rightarrow \text{Hand withdrawal}$

• 3. Neutral Stimulus (NS):

  • A stimulus that initially produces no specific or targeted response prior to conditioning.

• 4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS):

  • A previously neutral stimulus ($\text{NS}$) that acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus ($\text{US}$).

• 5. Conditioned Response (CR):

  • A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus ($\text{CS}$) as a result of classical conditioning.

The Respondent Conditioning Process

• Procedural Steps:

  • Step 1: Identify the Unconditioned Stimulus ($\text{US}$) and Unconditioned Response ($\text{UR}$).
  • Step 2: Repeatedly pair the Neutral Stimulus ($\text{NS}$) with the Unconditioned Stimulus ($\text{US}$).
  • Step 3: The Neutral Stimulus ($\text{NS}$) transforms into a Conditioned Stimulus ($\text{CS}$).
  • Step 4: The Conditioned Stimulus ($\text{CS}$) elicits the Conditioned Response ($\text{CR}$).

• Key Structural Principles:

  • $\text{NS}$ and $\text{CS}$ represent the exact same physical stimulus; its classification changes once it reliably elicits a response.
  • $\text{UR}$ and $\text{CR}$ are topographically identical or similar biological responses, distinguished by the stimulus that elicits them ($\text{UR}$ elicited by $\text{US}$; $\text{CR}$ elicited by $\text{CS}$).
  • The $\text{NS}$ must be presented just before the $\text{US}$ or $\text{CS}$ to successfully condition the response.

• General Model:$\text{US} \rightarrow \text{UR}$$\text{NS (later the CS)} + \text{US} \rightarrow \text{UR (later the CR)}$$\text{Repeatedly Pair}$$\text{CS} \rightarrow \text{CR}$

• Pavlovian Model (1927):$\text{US (meat powder)} \rightarrow \text{UR (salivation)}$$\text{NS (bell)} + \text{US (meat powder)} \rightarrow \text{UR (salivation)}$$\text{Repeatedly Pair}$$\text{CS (bell)} \rightarrow \text{CR (salivation)}$

• Eye Doctor Model:$\text{US (air puff)} \rightarrow \text{UR (blink)}$$\text{NS (click)} + \text{US (air puff)} \rightarrow \text{UR (blink)}$$\text{Repeatedly Pair}$$\text{CS (click)} \rightarrow \text{CR (blink)}$

• Temporal Sequence Requirement:

  • Conditioning will only occur if the $\text{NS}$ precedes the $\text{US}$.
  • Effective order: $\text{NS (later CS)} + \text{US} \rightarrow \text{UR (later CR)}$
  • Ineffective order: $\text{US} + \text{NS (later CS)} \rightarrow \text{UR (later CR)}$

Temporal Arrangements of Respondent Conditioning

• Trace Conditioning (Most Common):

  • The $\text{NS}$ is presented and terminates before the $\text{US}$ is presented.
  • There is almost no time interval between the offset of the $\text{NS}$ and the onset of the $\text{US}$.
  • Example: Bell rings and stops, followed immediately by meat powder.

• Delay Conditioning (Common & Highly Effective):

  • The $\text{NS}$ is presented first, and while the $\text{NS}$ is still present, the $\text{US}$ is presented.
  • The offset of the $\text{NS}$ overlaps with the onset of the $\text{US}$.
  • Example: Bell begins ringing, and while it is ringing, meat powder is presented.

• Simultaneous Conditioning (Barely Effective):

  • The $\text{NS}$ and $\text{US}$ are presented and terminated at the exact same moment.
  • Example: Bell rings at the precise moment meat powder is placed in the dog's mouth.

• Backward Conditioning (Ineffective):

  • The $\text{US}$ is presented and terminated before the $\text{NS}$ is introduced.
  • Does not produce effective conditioning.
  • Example: Meat powder is delivered and consumed, followed by a bell ringing.

Higher-Order Conditioning

• Definition:

  • A process where a well-established Conditioned Stimulus ($\text{CS}$) is paired with a new Neutral Stimulus ($\text{NS}^2$) to convert the new neutral stimulus into a second conditioned stimulus ($\text{CS}^2$).     
  • Success depends directly on how well-established the original $\text{CS}$ is.
  • The magnitude of the conditioned response weakens progressively with each additional higher-order tier (e.g., pairing bell with food, then light with bell, then tone with light).

• Higher-Order General Formula:$\text{US} \rightarrow \text{UR}$$\text{NS (later CS)} + \text{US} \rightarrow \text{UR (later CR)}$$\text{CS} \rightarrow \text{CR}$$\text{NS}^2 \text{ (later CS}^2\text{)} + \text{CS} \rightarrow \text{CR}$$\text{CS}^2 \rightarrow \text{CR}$

• Pavlov’s Higher-Order Experiment:

  • First-Order Tier:         $\text{US (meat)} \rightarrow \text{UR (saliva)}$$\text{NS (bell)} + \text{US (meat)} \rightarrow \text{UR (saliva)}$$\text{CS (bell)} \rightarrow \text{CR (saliva)}$
  • Second-Order Tier:         $\text{NS}^2 \text{ (white lab coat)} + \text{CS (bell)} \rightarrow \text{CR (saliva)}$$\text{CS}^2 \text{ (white lab coat)} \rightarrow \text{CR (saliva)}$

Conditioned Emotional Responses (CERs)

• John B. Watson's Research:

  • Demonstrated conditioned emotional responses in human subjects (e.g., the Little Albert experiment) operating on $\text{S-R}$ mechanics.

• Physiological Basis:

  • Classical conditioning is responsible for the physiological feeling components of human emotions.
  • Specifically involves autonomic nervous system arousal:
    • Intense changes in breathing
    • Rapid or elevated heart rate
    • Pupil constriction or dilation

• Categories of CERs:

  • Negative Conditioned Emotional Responses: Fear, anxiety, anger.
  • Positive Conditioned Emotional Responses: Love, happiness, pleasure.
  • Measurement: Many CERs are covert physiological events that are challenging to measure directly.

• Innate Emotional Responses in Infants:

  • Fear: Loud noises elicit crying, grasping, and breath-catching.
  • Anger: Physical restriction of movement elicits screaming, crying, and body stiffening.
  • Happiness: Gentle rocking elicits cooing and smiling.

Key Phenomena in Respondent Conditioning

• Respondent Extinction:

  • Occurs when a Conditioned Stimulus ($\text{CS}$) is repeatedly presented in the complete absence of the Unconditioned Stimulus ($\text{US}$).
  • Over repeated presentations, the $\text{CS}$ loses its ability to elicit the $\text{CR}$.
  • Example Sequence:         $\text{CS (bell)} \rightarrow \text{CR (saliva)}$$\text{CS (bell repeated over and over without meat)}$$\text{CS (bell)} \rightarrow \text{Nothing}$

• Spontaneous Recovery:

  • The re-emergence of an extinguished Conditioned Response ($\text{CR}$) following a period of time where neither the $\text{CS}$ nor $\text{US}$ is presented.
  • Characteristics: The response appears briefly upon re-exposure, and the magnitude of the $\text{CR}$ is weaker than prior to extinction.
  • Example Progression:
    • Conditioning: $\text{CS (bell)} \rightarrow \text{CR (saliva)}$
    • Extinction: $\text{CS (bell)} \rightarrow \text{Nothing}$
    • Time Delay: One week elapses with zero exposure to bell or meat powder.
    • Recovery Test: $\text{CS (bell)} \rightarrow \text{CR (a small amount of saliva)}$

• Habituation:

  • The process by which an organism becomes accustomed and progressively less responsive to an Unconditioned Stimulus ($\text{US}$) following repeated exposure.
  • After habituation, the $\text{US}$ no longer elicits the Unconditioned Response ($\text{UR}$).
  • Critical Distinction: Habituation always involves an Unconditioned Stimulus ($\text{US}$), never a Conditioned Stimulus ($\text{CS}$).
  • Example: A loud train passing at night ($\text{US}$) initially startles ($\text{UR}$) a sleeping person. After living near the tracks for a week, $\text{US (train at night)} \rightarrow \text{Nothing (person stays asleep)}$.

• Discrimination:

  • Occurs when a Conditioned Response ($\text{CR}$) is elicited exclusively by a single specific $\text{CS}$ or an extremely narrow range of stimuli.
  • Example:         $\text{US (dog bite)} \rightarrow \text{UR (fear)}$$\text{NS (poodle)} + \text{US (bite)} \rightarrow \text{UR (fear)}$$\text{CS (poodle)} \rightarrow \text{CR (fear)}$
    • Discrimination outcome: $\text{CS (the specific poodle that bit the person)}$ or $\text{CS (poodles generally)} \rightarrow \text{CR (fear)}$, while encountering any other dog breed elicits no fear.

• Generalization:

  • Occurs when stimuli similar to the original Conditioned Stimulus ($\text{CS}$) elicit the same Conditioned Response ($\text{CR}$).
  • Example:         $\text{CS (poodle)} \rightarrow \text{CR (fear)}$
    • Generalization outcome: $\text{CS (any dog of any breed)} \rightarrow \text{CR (fear)}$.

Factors Influencing Conditioning Efficacy

• 1. Nature of the CS and US:

  • Intensity: More intense stimuli are more salient, producing faster and stronger conditioning.
  • Biological Preparedness: Innate evolutionary predispositions make certain stimuli easier to pair with specific responses:
    • Taste stimuli easily condition to nausea/illness (taste aversion).
    • Visual and auditory stimuli easily condition to fear responses.

• 2. Temporal Relationship:

  • Strongest conditioning occurs when the $\text{CS}$ precedes the $\text{US}$ by half a second ($500\,\text{ms}$).
  • Delay conditioning and trace conditioning are significantly more effective than simultaneous or backward conditioning.
  • Exception: Taste aversion conditioning can successfully occur even with several hours separating the $\text{CS}$ (ingestion) and $\text{US}$ (nausea).

• 3. Contingency:

  • Refers to how consistently the $\text{US}$ is presented immediately following the $\text{NS}/\text{CS}$.
  • Continuous pairing yields maximum conditioning strength.
  • The $\text{CS}$ acquires a far greater ability to elicit the $\text{CR}$ when the $\text{CS}$ reliably and predictably predicts the $\text{US}$.

• 4. Number of Pairings:

  • A greater number of paired presentations between $\text{NS}$ and $\text{US}$ yields stronger, more enduring conditioning.
  • In extreme cases (e.g., severe trauma or taste aversion), a single pairing can produce permanent conditioning.

• 5. Previous Exposure to the CS (Latent Inhibition):

  • Novel stimuli are significantly more effective as CSs than familiar stimuli previously experienced without the $\text{US}$.
  • When multiple stimuli precede a $\text{US}$, the stimulus most consistently associated with the $\text{US}$ becomes the dominant $\text{CS}$.

Counterconditioning

• Definition:

  • A clinical procedure where a new Conditioned Stimulus ($\text{CS}$) with an opposing response is conditioned simultaneously while the original $\text{CS}$ is undergoing extinction.

• Formula & Example:

  • Baseline Condition:         $\text{CS}_A \text{ (sight of friend's dog)} \rightarrow \text{CR}_A \text{ (fear)}$$\text{CS}_B \text{ (playing with friend)} \rightarrow \text{CR}_B \text{ (happiness)}$
  • Counterconditioning Procedure:         $\text{CS}_A \text{ (dog)} + \text{CS}_B \text{ (friend)} \rightarrow \text{CR}_B \text{ (happiness)}$
  • Final Outcome:         $\text{CS}_A \text{ (sight of friend's dog)} \rightarrow \text{CR}_B \text{ (happiness)}$