AP United States Government and Politics - Study Guide

Key Exam Details

  • The AP U.S. Government and Politics exam assesses knowledge typically covered in a one-semester college introductory course.
  • The 3-hour exam includes:
    • 55 multiple-choice questions (50% of the exam).
    • 4 free-response questions (50% of the exam).
  • Exam topics:
    • Foundations of American Democracy: 15–22%.
    • Civil Liberties and Civil Rights: 13–18%.
    • Interactions Between Branches of Government: 25–36%.
    • Political Participation: 20–27%.
    • American Political Beliefs and Ideologies: 10–15%.

Foundations of American Democracy

  • Covers approximately 15–22% of the AP exam.

Types of Democracy

  • Direct Democracy:
    • Citizens directly govern and make laws.
    • Considered chaotic and inefficient, especially in large populations.
    • Carries the risk of the majority violating minority rights.
  • Participatory Democracy:
    • Values broad-based public participation.
    • Aims to keep government closely aligned with the people's opinions.
  • Representative Democracy/Republicanism:
    • Citizens elect representatives to govern.
    • More efficient, allowing quicker decisions by a smaller group.
    • Retains public participation while improving efficiency.
  • Elite Democracy/Elitism:
    • Favors governance by the best-educated and most qualified.
    • Advocates for a small group of well-informed people to govern.
  • Majoritarian Democracy:
    • Promotes majority rule.
    • Empowers the majority to govern based on ideals and values.
    • Values efficiency and decisive elections.
    • Critics argue that it can lead to the violation of minority rights and results in zero-sum game politics.
  • Consensus Democracy:
    • Promotes power-sharing across diverse groups.
    • Requires compromise among all groups due to dispersed power.
    • Critics argue it's inefficient and hinders quick decision-making during crises.

Founding Documents

  • Declaration of Independence:
    • Created by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.
    • Declares the British Colonies as free and independent.
    • Authored by Thomas Jefferson, it relies on Natural Rights, Popular Sovereignty, and Social Contract Theory.
    • Argues the colonies can form their own government due to British abuses.
  • Natural Rights:
    • Rights that exist in the absence of government.
    • John Locke proposed three basic natural rights: life, liberty, and property in Two Treatises of Government.
    • These are "negative" rights, restricting others from infringing upon them.
  • Popular Sovereignty:
    • The concept that people are the highest level of power in society.
    • Government legitimacy is derived from the consent of the governed.
  • Social Contract Theory:
    • People consent to be governed in exchange for protections and public goods.
    • Thomas Hobbes proposed this in Leviathan.
    • Supports constitutional governments as constitutions are a form of social contract.
  • Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union:
    • The first constitution of the United States, created by the Second Continental Congress on November 15, 1777.
    • Relied on John Locke’s theory of natural rights and limited government roles.
    • Gave the country its name: The United States of America.
    • Confederation: smaller government units (states) are sovereign.
  • Under the Articles of Confederation, the national government's powers were very limited:
    • One branch: Congress.
    • Equal representation from each state.
    • Super-majority needed to pass laws.
    • Congress could create currency, borrow money, declare war, raise an army, and establish foreign relations.
  • Failures of the Articles of Confederation:
    • No executive branch.
    • No national judiciary.
    • No power to tax.
    • No power to enforce laws or compel state funding.
    • Lacked powers not “expressly delegated”.
    • Resulted in an economic depression and significant disfunction.
  • Shays’ Rebellion:
    • An uprising in western Massachusetts protesting economic conditions, high taxes, and debt collections.
    • Led by Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays.
    • Demonstrated the weakness of the national government, leading to calls for a constitutional convention.

The Constitution of the United States

  • A constitutional convention was called in the summer of 1787 to fix the Articles of Confederation.
  • The new government abandoned the system of Confederation in favor of a system of federalism.
  • The Virginia Plan created a Congress with two houses—both based on representation.
  • The New Jersey Plan created a Congress with one house based on equal representation from each state.
  • The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) created a bicameral legislature:
    • House of Representatives based on population.
    • Senate based on equal representation.
  • The Three-Fifths Compromise counted slaves as three-fifths of a person for representation.
  • Government separated into three branches based on Montesquieu’s ideas: executive, legislative, and judicial.
  • Each branch has specific, unique powers (separation of powers).
  • Each branch has powers over the others (checks and balances).
  • The Constitution relies heavily on republicanism.
  • Only the House of Representatives is directly elected by the people.
  • Senators were initially appointed by state legislatures.
  • The President is elected by the Electoral College.
  • The Electoral College places a buffer between the people and the president.
  • The national government has enumerated and implied powers.
  • Implied powers allow the government to execute its enumerated powers.

Constitutional Structure

  • The Constitution is separated into seven articles.
  • Article I:
    • Created Congress and the legislative branch.
    • The House of Representatives is based on population (435 seats).
    • Representatives must be 25 years old, a U.S. citizen, and reside in the state they represent.
    • Elected every two years.
    • The Speaker of the House is the most powerful person in Congress.
    • The Census is required every 10 years to apportion representation.
    • Each member represents approximately 700,000 people.
    • The House has the power of impeachment.
    • All bills raising taxes must originate in the House.
    • The Senate has two representatives from each state.
    • Senators serve terms of six years (staggered elections).
    • Senators must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. citizen, and a resident of the state they represent.
    • The Vice President presides over the Senate but only votes in case of a tie.
    • The Senate tries all impeachments.
    • Powers of Congress are enumerated in Article I, Section 8, including:
      • Taxation.
      • Regulation of commerce and immigration.
      • Coining money.
      • Creating the post office and patents.
      • Creating courts inferior to the Supreme Court.
      • Declaring war.
      • Creating the army and navy.
      • Governing Washington, DC.
      • Making laws necessary and proper to execute enumerated powers.
  • Article II:
    • Created the executive branch and the presidency.
    • The president and vice president are elected to terms of 4 years by the Electoral College.
    • Electoral votes are assigned by adding representatives and senators.
    • To be president, one must be a natural-born citizen and at least 35 years of age.
    • The president is commander in chief of the army, navy, and state militias.
    • They have the power to create treaties (ratified by the Senate).
    • The president appoints officials (confirmed by the Senate).
    • The president can pardon federal offenses (except impeachment) and commute sentences.
    • The president, vice president, and all civil officers can be impeached for treason, bribery, or high crimes and misdemeanors.
    • The president is required to give Congress an update on the state of the union.
  • Article III:
    • Created the judicial branch and the Supreme Court.
    • Consists of 93 District Courts, 13 Circuit Courts of Appeals, and the Supreme Court.
    • The Supreme Court and lower courts created by Congress are empowered with “judicial power”.
    • The Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison interpreted this judicial power as the power of judicial review, meaning only the courts have the power to interpret law and the constitution.
    • Federal judiciary appointees have lifetime terms.
    • The Supreme Court has original and appellate jurisdiction.
    • Article III, Section 3 defines treason.
  • Article IV:
    • Expands on federalism.
    • States must respect the public records, acts, and judicial proceedings of other states.
    • Citizens are entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in every state.
    • Describes the process for admitting new states.
    • Guarantees each state a republican form of government.
  • Article V:
    • Provides two methods for amending the Constitution: by two-thirds vote of each house of Congress or by a convention of the states.
    • Amendments require ratification by three-fourths of state legislatures.
  • Article VI:
    • Guaranteed the debt of the United States under the Articles of Confederation.
    • The Constitution, federal law, and treaties are the supreme law of the land.
  • Article VII:
    • Set the ratification process (9 of 13 states needed).

Ratification Campaign

  • Federalists favored ratification; Anti-Federalists opposed it.
  • Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay authored The Federalist Papers.
  • Federalist #10: Madison described how republicanism combined with separation of powers can control government.
  • Federalist #78: Hamilton described the judicial branch as the least threatening, with only judgment power.
  • Anti-Federalists, under the name Brutus, warned that the new government was too powerful and distant.
  • They preferred subsidiarity: government power kept at the state level.

Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

  • Covers 13–18% of the AP exam.
  • The first ten amendments are known as the Bill of Rights.
  • Made as a political compromise between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
  • The original Constitution did not mention specific rights.

First Amendment

  • Protects free exercise of religion, speech, press, petition, and assembly.
  • Contains the Establishment Clause (separation of church and state).
  • Free Exercise Clause: guarantees the right to follow the religion of your choice.
    • Belief is absolute, but actions can be regulated.
    • Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972): government must prove a compelling interest and use the least restrictive means to limit religious exercise (strict scrutiny).
  • Establishment Clause:
    • Lemon v Kurtzman (1972): the "Lemon Test" requires laws to have a secular purpose, not inhibit or advance religion, and not create excessive entanglement between church and state.
    • Engel v. Vitale (1962): school-sponsored prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause.
  • Freedom of Speech: is not absolute; restrictions can be placed by the government.
    • Time, place, and manner restrictions: limit how speech is exercised (e.g., noise ordinances, permits).
    • Content restrictions: limit the substance of what is said.
      • Schenk v United States (1919): speech that presents a “clear and present danger” can be prohibited (e.g., shouting “fire” in a crowded theater).
      • Tinker v. Des Moines (1969): expressive acts (e.g., armbands) are protected, even for public school students.
      • The courts attempt to balance free speech with public order on a case-by-case basis.
  • Freedom of the Press: also protected by the First Amendment.
    • Near v Minnesota: prohibited “prior restraint” (censorship), except in national security and wartime issues.
    • New York Times v. United States (1971): heavy assumption against prior restraint/censorship.

Second Amendment

  • Protects the right to keep and bear arms.
  • Interpreted by the Supreme Court to be an individual right.
  • District of Columbia v Heller (2008): ban on handguns violated the Second Amendment.
  • McDonald v. Chicago (2010): applied the Second Amendment to state and local laws.

Fourth Amendment

  • Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures.
  • Requires warrants based on probable cause.
  • Certain exceptions allowed.

Fourteenth Amendment

  • Passed during the Civil War.
  • Defines citizenship, protects due process, and guarantees equal protection under the law.
  • Used to apply the Bill of Rights to the states (Selective Incorporation Doctrine).
  • Due Process Clause: protects citizens from arbitrary government action.
    • Supports the right to privacy.
    • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): defendants have the right to a lawyer under the Due Process Clause.
  • Right to Privacy: touches on government searches, personal relationships, abortion, healthcare, and Internet usage.
    • Summarized as “the right to be left alone.”
    • Roe v. Wade (1973): extended the right to privacy to a woman's choice to end a pregnancy.
    • Trimester scheme: balanced government power and privacy.
      • First trimester: absolute right to privacy.
      • Second trimester: government regulates safety of medical procedures.
      • Third trimester: government can prohibit abortion (except when life and health of mother are at stake).
  • Equal Protection Clause: protects citizens from unequal treatment under the law.
    • Unequal treatment based on race is highly suspicious.
    • Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954): racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.
    • Overruled Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
    • Used precedent to rule racial segregation in official government policy unconstitutional in all cases.
  • Affirmative Action: race cannot be a primary factor in college admissions or government hiring.
    • Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978): affirmative action policies are permissible to diversify college admissions, but race cannot be the primary factor.
  • Civil Rights Act of 1964: extended civil rights and equal treatment to the private sector.
    • Prohibits discrimination based on race and other factors in public accommodations.
  • Voting Rights Act of 1965: prohibits discrimination in voting.
    • Banned practices such as literacy tests.
    • "Pre-clearance" provision (requiring permission from the Department of Justice to change voting laws) is currently not in effect.

Interactions Between Branches of Government

  • Covers 25–36% of questions on the AP exam.

Federalism

  • Division of power between the federal and state governments.
  • Dual Federalism ("Layer Cake"):
    • Strict division of power and responsibility between state and federal governments.
    • Also known as “states’ rights.”
    • Advantages: allows states to experiment with policy, power is closest to the people.
    • Disadvantages: states lack jurisdiction over interstate problems, lack resources.
  • Cooperative Federalism ("Marble Cake"):
    • Federal and state governments share power and responsibility.
    • Gives more power to Congress and the national government.
    • Advantages: federal government has jurisdiction throughout the country, has massive resources, provides multiple access points to government.
    • Disadvantages: Congress makes policy that is not specific enough, national-level policy experiments can have nationwide impacts.
  • Supreme Court Cases:
    • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): states cannot interfere with Congress's legitimate powers; confirmed implied powers.
    • Lopez v. United States: commerce power is not unlimited; activities must relate to interstate commerce; recognized state sovereignty.

Policy Making in Congress

  • Done mostly through the committee process.
  • Committees specialize in certain areas of policy.
  • Subcommittees deal with specific areas of policy.
  • Standing committees are permanent.
  • Select committees are temporary (but becoming more permanent).
  • Legislation is assigned to the appropriate committee/subcommittee.
  • Legislation can be amended in committee.
  • If approved, the legislation moves to the larger legislative body.
  • The legislation can be further amended before being voted on for final passage.
  • If the House and Senate bills differ, differences are worked out in the Conference Committee.
  • The final version is sent to the president for signature or veto.
  • Delegate Model: representatives should vote with the will of the people of the district.
  • Trustee Model: representatives should use their best judgment.
  • Delegation of Authority: Congress may allow the executive branch to create rules and regulations.
    • Must use “an intelligible principle”.
    • Congress can withdraw this delegated authority or remove funding.
    • Legislative vetoes are unconstitutional.

Administrative Law

  • Executive branch rules created under the delegation of authority by Congress.
  • Independent agencies can be created within the executive branch.
  • Independent agencies are led by presidential appointees (confirmed by the Senate).
  • Empowered with quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial functions.
  • Quasi-legislative: can create new rules and regulations.
  • Quasi-judicial: can decide if an individual or organization has acted inappropriately.
  • Bureaucratic capture: industry leaders being appointed to government oversight agencies, providing favorable oversight for the industry.

The Presidency

  • The president is the leader of the executive branch involved in domestic and foreign policy creation.
  • The presidency is the most powerful position in the U.S. government.
  • Literalist Doctrine: the president has only the powers specified in Article II of the Constitution.
  • Stewardship Doctrine: the president can exercise power unless the Constitution specifically prohibits it.
  • Unitary Executive Theory: the president has total authority within the executive branch.
  • The president has the most power in foreign policy.
  • Commander in chief of the military.
  • Power to create relationships with foreign countries and leaders.
  • Negotiate treaties and executive agreements.
  • Executive agreements do not require Senate ratification.
  • The president can prioritize certain issues and policies within existing law.
  • The president has the power of the bully pulpit: ability to command media coverage and focus public attention.
  • The Executive Office of the President (EOP), contains employees who work directly for the president.
  • Includes the Vice President, White House Chief of Staff, Communications Office, National Security Council, Office of Management and Budget, and eight other offices.
  • Approximately 2,400 people work for the EOP.
  • The president oversees the rest of the Executive Branch, including all the cabinets and agencies of the federal bureaucracy.

Tension Between Branches of the Federal Government

  • The constitutional design guarantees tension between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
  • The branches of government are codependent on each other.
  • Congress has the “power of the purse” (budget).
  • The president manages government agencies and budgets.
  • The president creates a budget proposal, but Congress is not bound to honor that budget.
  • The president can veto proposed legislation.
  • Congress can override the president's veto by a two-thirds vote of each house.
  • Only Congress can declare war, but the president is commander in chief.
  • The judicial branch can declare laws unconstitutional.
  • It can also interpret statutes and the Constitution and settle what the law is when statutes are in conflict.
  • The judicial branch cannot fund itself, enforce its own rulings, or create new courts.

Bureaucracy

  • An agency devoted to carrying out the policies of the government consistent with the laws passed by Congress.
  • Cabinet departments are large organizations that coordinate activities and provide executive oversight.
  • Created via legislation from Congress.
  • Led by a secretary nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate.
  • Senate confirmation for the upper leadership of all cabinet departments.
  • Civil service: Everyday workers employed by the federal government
  • Civil service employees are not political appointees.
  • They obtain their positions through merit hiring procedures.
  • Civil service hiring began with the Pendleton Act in the 1880s.
  • The spoils system: Hiring all government employs based upon political loyalties and favors.

Political Participation

  • Covers 20–27% of exam questions.

Voting

  • The fundamental way citizens can participate.
  • Voting was not clearly defined in the original Constitution, but protections have been added through amendments.
    • Fifteenth Amendment: prohibits discrimination based on race, color, or previous condition of slavery.
    • Seventeenth Amendment: changed the selection of senators to election by citizens.
    • Nineteenth Amendment: guarantees women the right to vote.
    • Twenty-Third Amendment: provides Washington, DC, residents with 3 electoral votes.
    • Twenty-Fourth Amendment: bans the use of poll taxes.
    • Twenty-Sixth Amendment: lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.
  • Supreme Court Cases:
    • Baker v. Carr (1962): redistricting must be done based on equal population in each district (“one person, one vote”).
  • Voters select candidates based on different reasons.
    • Party-line voting: vote for all candidates of one party.
    • Rational choice selection: vote based on which candidate will be best for individual interests.
    • Retrospective voting: choices based on a candidate's history.
    • Prospective voting: selection based on how a voter thinks the candidate will perform in the future.
  • Determinants:
    • Education, income, race, ethnicity, religious affiliation, and age are all factors. Higher income, college-educated individuals, senior citizens, and those who are religiously affiliated tend to be more likely to vote. Racial and ethnic minorities, lower-income individuals, and 18- to 29-year-old voters tend to vote less often.
    • Voter turnout depends on individual issues in an election such as condition of the economy, international crisis, and social issues.
    • The United States has lower voter turnout than some other countries.

Elections

  • Power to administer elections is divided between the federal government and state governments.
  • Federal election dates defined constitutionally or by statute.
  • State election dates are set by the legislature in each state.
  • Voter registration is done state by state, with significant input on registration activities.
  • State and local governments establish and operate polling sites and early voting.
    • Congressional and presidential elections are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. These are also known as general elections.
    • Primary elections, set on a state-by-state basis.
    • Closed primaries: only open to registered members of the political party.
    • Open primaries: open to any voter.
    • Caucuses are used in some states to select presidential candidates. They require voters to attend a meeting on election night at their local voting location and pledge their support for a candidate.
    • Mid-term elections are held when the president is not on the ballot—in other words when the president is in the middle of his or her four-year term.
  • Determining who wins an election is done on a state-by-state basis.
    • Some states: candidates may win with a plurality of votes, meaning candidates only need one more vote than other candidates to win.
    • Other states: candidates are required to receive a majority of the votes.
    • If no candidate receives a majority, runoff elections are held between the top two finishers.
  • Ballot design and technology is done on a state-by-state or even a county-by-county basis.

Political Parties

  • Organizations designed to bring like-minded people together in order to elect members of the party.
  • Play a role in organizing government, operating elections, educating voters, and increasing voter turnout.
  • Contributions:
    • Party in the electorate.
    • Party in government.
    • Party as organization.
Party in the Electorate
  • Educate voters on issues, update voters on upcoming elections and their rules, register voters, and turn out voters on election day.
  • Formed early but changed over time.
  • The United States has a two-party system.
  • Since the 1850s our two major political parties have been the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.
  • The voters and groups who make up the parties has changed over time.
    • Different people, interests, and groups affiliated with a political party is called the party coalition.
    • Political party coalitions can be based on economic interests, social issues, religious affiliation, geographic location, political ideology, racial makeup, and ethnicity among other factors.
  • Determinants:
    • Historically, political party affiliation was strongly correlated with family preference and social group, meaning that if your family and social circle are Democrats or Republicans you would also likely be a Democrat or Republican.
    • Family and social party identification leads people to identify with the party first, and then with how they feel on individual issues as a secondary consideration.
    • More recently, however, evidence indicates that a person's views on individual issues drives them to vote for one party or the other.
  • National level
    • Parties hold conventions, or gatherings of selected delegates, at both the state and national levels.
    • National conventions occur every four years during the presidential election cycle. These conventional formalize the selection of the presidential and vice-presidential candidate for each party.
    • Prior to the 1970s, presidential candidates were actually selected at the conventions with little primary election or caucus input.
  • Minor Parties
    • Third parties, or minor parties, exist in the United States in abundance.
    • Minor parties are usually organized around a singular issue or a small set of related issues that motivates the targeted constituency.
    • Historically, when a minor party gains a significant enough following, one of the two major parties will adopt the issues motivating the minor party as part of the major party’s platform.
Party in Government
  • Helps to organize government.
  • In the legislative branch, political parties form caucuses, which in theory help the legislature run more effectively.
  • Membership on committees, committee leadership, and overall legislative leadership are determined by parties, often through seniority.
Party as Organization
  • Parties have a formal organizational structure and leadership.
  • They gather information, collect resources, promote issues, and recruit candidates for office at all levels.
  • Political parties help candidates with financial and informational resources and provide support during campaigns and while governing.
  • Organization occurs at the local, state, and federal level.

Campaign Finance Regulation

  • Significant funds are raised at the national and state levels to support candidates in their parties.
  • Candidates are also responsible for fundraising within their individual campaigns.
  • Both are regulated by state and federal government.
  • At the federal level, the Federal Election Commission (FEC) regulates campaign finance and disclosure.
  • The Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) created the FEC and campaign finance rules for federal candidates.
  • Federal level
    • Political fundraising has contribution limits and public disclosure requirements enforced by the FEC.
  • Organizations
    • Political Action Committees (PACs)- regulated by the FEC.
  • Independant expenditure organizations (SuperPACs): face only disclosure requirements from the FEC.
  • Buckley v. Valeo (1976): spending money in elections is a form of expression protected by the First Amendment.
  • The court allowed contribution limits to stay in place but struck down spending limits.
  • Citizens United v. FEC (2010): extended free speech protection to corporate entities.
  • Resulted in an increase in election spending

Interest Groups

  • An organization or group of individuals or entities who seek to influence politics, government, and policy but are not a political party.
  • Formed around specific areas of policy and seek to influence government in ways that are of benefit to their group.
  • Usually businesses organize into interest groups centered around the type of businesses they’re in (banking, pharmaceuticals, energy, etc).
  • Pluralism theory suggests that interest groups overall have a positive effect on government stating that there are interest groups representing all areas of society and all sides of any given issue.
  • Elitism theory suggests that interest groups may not provide universal representation on all issues. Even if groups exist on both sides, some groups have much more power and influence than others.
  • Interest groups attempt to influence policy and government officials using three primary tools: lobbying, campaign finance, and grassroots.
    • Lobbying is the act of talking directly to policy makers and building relationships with them in order to influence policy.
    • Interest groups can also influence government by helping to elect or re-elect lawmakers who are favorable to their issues via financial donations to political campaigns.
    • Interest groups can also influence government through grassroots efforts, which refers to actions taken to affect public opinion on an issue.
    • Manipulating public opinion around an issue, interest groups can encourage an elected official to side with them or risk angering the voters who elect them.
    • The rise of social media has made grassroots organizing much easier, especially for small organizations who do not have the money or influence of larger organizations.

American Political Beliefs and Ideologies

  • Covers 10–15% of exam.

Public Opinion

  • A collection of attitudes and preferences held by the general public, measured through public opinion polling.
  • Polling:
    • Is the scientific measure of public opinion and is performed by collecting opinions from a randomly collected sample of individuals who are representative of the larger group.
    • Takes into consideration a number of factors when attempting to obtain a representative sample of the population. Age, gender, race, education, income group, and other factors can all affect the outcome of a poll.
    • Types:
      • Benchmark polls take a snapshot of the public opinion at any given time.
      • Tracking polls are done continuously over a given period of time to measure how public opinion is changing from day to day, week to week, month to month, or even year to year.
      • Election Day polls are often done on Election Day at polling places in highly important precincts to let political campaigns and the media know how election is going in real time.
      • Entrance polls ask voters how they intend to vote prior to their entering their polling places.
      • Exit polls ask voters how they voted once the voter has left the voting place.
    • Polls have a margin of error (+/-).
    • Polling can be done by Internet, phone, or in person.
    • Focus groups gather people together who are representative of their communities to ask them questions about certain subjects.
  • Public opinion can be formed and manipulated in various ways.
    • Priming:
      • Media organizations and political leaders make decisions to prioritize issues, which may prime public opinion.
      • Is the process through which certain issues are prioritized in the public's mind over other issues.
    • Framing:
      • Media organizations and political leaders create a context for how the public views a certain issue.
      • Is the process of establishing context in which a certain issue is understood by the public.
  • Public opinion is also affected by an individual’s predisposition towards any given issue.
    • Bias:
      • Refers to the preconceived ideas and feelings that the individual brings to an issue before being presented with new information on the issue.
      • Confirmation Bias:
        • Is a common bias where an individual seeks out or interprets new information to confirm what they already believe to be true.
        • Individuals attempt to reconcile conflicting information in their own minds.
        • When presented with new information that conflicts with a previously held bias, individuals will often attempt to rationalize their previously held positions and dismiss the new information.
      • Availability Bias:
        • Is a form of confirmation bias where readily available examples of something are mistaken for being more representative than they are (anecdotal evidence versus empirical evidence).
    • Cognitive Dissonance:
      • Is the discomfort felt by individuals in being presented with information that conflicts with their previously held beliefs (issue orientation: how people feel, issue intensity: how strongly people feel).
  • Public opinion can shape public policy, but public opinion can also be shaped by public policy.
  • Prioritization
  • Correlation:
    • Is the relationship between two items—items that are closely related or occur frequently together can be said to have strong correlation.

Ideology

  • Refers to a set of ideas or values that voters and individuals may identify with based on how they feel about a wide variety of issues and their general attitude toward the role of government.
  • In the United States, ideology is broadly divided into liberal and conservative.
    • Liberals tend to favor government action, especially at the federal level, in regulating the economy and providing necessities for those who need it.
    • Liberals tend to favor individual freedom on social issues, preferring less government involvement in private lives and a broader freedom of speech, association, etc.
    • Conservatives tend to favor less government involvement in the economy, preferring free market forces to dictate prices, wages, recession, and expansion.
    • Conservatives tend to favor more government involvement in social issues.
    • The Democratic Party tends to be the more liberal party while the Republican Party (often referred to as the Grand Old Party, or GOP) tends to be the more conservative party.
    • American voters can use party labels as a heuristic, or mental shortcut, to determine how they will vote when they are not familiar with certain candidates in certain races.