ch 14
Chapter 14: Overview
Cultures of Splendor and Power (1500-1780)
Global Storyline: The Creation of Global Cultures
Growing global commerce enriched both rulers and merchants.
Rulers expressed their power via patronage of the arts.
This occurred in various regions such as Europe and China and the Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman Empires.
New wealth was used to promote learning and the arts, creating a cultural dynamism that legitimized their power and showcased their sophistication.
Distinctive cultures flourished in major regions of the world.
These cultures blended new influences with local traditions, albeit to varying degrees.
New ideas often conflicted with established social and political traditions.
While the Islamic and Asian worlds maintained their belief systems, the Americas and Oceania increasingly encountered European cultural pressures.
Culture in the Islamic World
Rulers supported new schools and building projects while the elite produced and consumed books, artwork, and luxury goods.
Unique cultural patterns emerged in the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires:
The Ottoman Cultural Synthesis: Had to balance the diverse needs and beliefs of its population.
The Safavid Culture: Characterized by Shiite state elements and absolutism.
The Mughal Culture: Marked by opulence, openness, and dynamism.
The Ottoman Cultural Synthesis (c. 1300-1923)
The Ottoman Empire was notable as the most ethnically, religiously, and linguistically diverse Islamic empire in history.
This diversity necessitated a strategy of coexistence among multiple groups, providing autonomy for religious minorities such as Jews and Christians.
The power of the Ottomans depended on their ability to adapt to the needs of their diverse subjects.
Education systems played a crucial role in integrating this diverse empire.
There were three educational systems designed for bureaucrats, religious leaders, and judges.
The highest level of education was associated with the Topkapi Palace complex.
Maps and Geography of the Ottoman Empire
An accompanying map in the transcript depicted the expanse of the Ottoman Empire at its zenith in 1683, covering significant territories across Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa.
The Safavid Empire (1501-1722)
Under Shah Abbas I (r. 1587–1629), the Safavid Empire integrated Shiite principles with Persian royal absolutism.
The capital city, Isfahan, was a testament to the wealth and power of the Safavid state, displaying impressive architecture intended to awe the observers and emphasize inclusivity.
The Mughal Empire (1526-1761)
The Mughals were a Muslim minority ruling over a predominantly Hindu population.
They constituted about 10-15% of the population, while 80-85% were Hindu.
Cultural developments flourished in this period, driven by wealth from silver and openness to foreign trade.
Islamic traditions prevailed in political and judicial realms, but artistic expressions and scholarship increasingly intermingled between Hindus and Muslims.
Mughal Architecture
Notable for its eclectic mix of Persian, Indian, and Ottoman styles.
Example: The Taj Mahal: Constructed by Emperor Shah Jehan between 1630-1650.
It merged Persian Islamic design with Indian materials and motifs, serving as a powerful symbol of integrated cultural exclusivity and inclusivity.
Culture and Politics in East Asia
Early Qing (and late Ming) China: Most cultural dynamism stemmed from internal developments despite increased contact with outsiders.
Growing populations and extensive commercial networks fostered the circulation of ideas.
Printed materials proliferated, leading to increased literacy and the establishment of libraries.
The focus on civil service exam study guides, along with a burgeoning appreciation for poetry by women, marked cultural growth.
Religion's Role: Diverse, tolerated, and unregulated practices with a focus on “cosmic unity.”
The Emperor recognized as the “Son of Heaven.”
Unless a group posed a threat, the emperor refrained from regulating spiritual practices, maintaining harmony.
Technological Innovations in China
China boasted a longstanding tradition of technological innovation during this period.
Notable inventions included gunpowder, the printing press, the magnetic compass, and advancements in astronomy, leading to the creation of accurate calendars.
However, there were diminished interests in European advancements and knowledge, with little engagement with external maps.
Culture and Politics in Japan – Tokugawa “Edo Period”
Amidst the Togukawa shogunate, three cultural trends coalesced:
Chinese ways, European teachings, and traditional Japanese practices.
Traditional elites favored preserving cultural legacies such as Noh theater, stylized paintings, and tea rituals.
Emergence of Popular Urban Culture: A new culture termed “the floating world” [ukiyo] arose, driven by merchants and artisans in urban settings, embracing a more pleasure-oriented lifestyle.
Examples include music, fiction, woodblock prints, and the rise of Geisha.
The Kabuki theatre became a wildly popular cultural facet combining dance, song, makeup, and costumes.
Literacy and Publications in Japan
Literacy surged among men leading into the late 1700s, fuelled by a burgeoning market for books and a rise in book lenders.
While the government censored certain publications, those critical of the authorities faced restrictions.
The Influence of Chinese Culture
A strong Chinese influence persisted within Japan, visible in areas such as imperial histories, religious practices (notably Buddhism), and legal systems.
Despite this, traditional Shintō practices endured,
Veneration of ancestors and nature remained paramount.
European Influences in Japan
Through limited commercial contact with the Dutch, European influences began to permeate Japanese culture.
A guild of interpreters was established in 1670 to facilitate trade, leading to the term “Dutch Learning.”
In 1720, foreign texts were permitted, expanding Japanese knowledge, especially regarding science and geography.
Western and Chinese ideologies were selectively adopted when deemed practical and beneficial in their context.
African Cultural Flourishing
Cultural traditions thrived in West Africa, particularly within the Asante, Oyo, and Benin states.
Wealth derived from the transatlantic slave trade helped invigorate these longstanding artistic traditions.
Key examples include bronze sculptures, textiles, and gold jewelry that celebrated royal power and connected ruling families to divine authority.
These cultural products remained distinct and autonomous from Western influences.
The Enlightenment in Europe
The advent of the New Science set the stage for the Enlightenment, shifting perspectives towards observable and empirical knowledge.
Thinkers such as Galileo, Copernicus, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton contributed foundational ideas within this movement.
Knowledge was acquired through empiricism, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and the scientific method.
New relationships emerged between science and commerce, state, and military, emphasizing practical applications in technology.
Enlightenment Thinkers
Key Figures: John Locke, Adam Smith, David Hume (Britain) and Denis Diderot, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (France).
Promotion of reason as a means to critique existing institutions and social norms.
Circulation of ideas was facilitated by the print culture, exemplified by The Encyclopédie and the philosophes in France.
Consequences of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment fostered critiques of religious institutions, framing them as irrational superstition while advocating for tolerance.
Criticism extended to non-Christian faiths, deemed “backward.”
Absolutist governments leveraged Enlightenment ideas to weaken the church and establish precise, universal systems (e.g., taxation).
Emergence of the concept of “race”, linking ethnicity with social and intellectual capacities, notably articulated through figures like Carl Linnaeus.
European Enlightenment in Global Perspective
Examination of the rich histories of science in China, India, and the Muslim world.
Integration of local scholars questioned the value of foreign sciences and natural studies.
Despite previous innovations such as gunpowder, the compass, and the printing press, European science garnered little interest.
Jesuits brought Western science in the 17th century but eventually lost influence in China.
Creating Hybrid Cultures in the Americas
The interactions between Western colonizers, indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans led to the creation of hybrid cultures in the Americas.
Spiritual Encounters: Christian missionaries aimed to convert and civilize indigenous populations, resulting in a blend of faiths. Some Europeans integrated with indigenous communities through intermarriage, influenced by gender imbalances.
Forming American Identities
Creoles emerged as a powerful new identity referring to Europeans born in the Americas, contrasting with Peninsulares, who were born in Spain or Portugal and retained high social status.
Creoles expressed resentment toward Peninsulares' privileges.
In British colonies, elites mirrored English customs, actively engaging with Enlightenment ideas, serving as both consumers and producers of those ideals.
The Casta System in Latin America
Established as a colonial hierarchy by Spain, the Casta system maintained Spanish control and reinforced European superiority.
The system’s influence persisted even after independence, shaping cultural, political, and economic landscapes.
The Influence of European Culture in Oceania
Beginning in 1770, British efforts to explore and colonize Oceania saw profound changes.
Australia underwent thorough Anglicanization, with its original aboriginal population reduced to around 300,000.
Captain James Cook's Scientific Voyages
His expeditions were marked by a blend of Enlightenment science and imperial goals, leading to the collection of samples and expansion of geographic knowledge.
Ecological and Cultural Impacts
British colonization transformed Australia into a source of raw materials and facilitated the growth of wool industries, embodying Enlightenment ideals by resettling UK convicts.
The influx of Anglo settlers reached 1.2 million by 1860, severely impacting the Aboriginal population.
Focus On: The Creation of Global Cultures
The Islamic World: Unique cultural synthesis in the Ottoman realm integrating various social groups, religious practices, and artistic exchanges. The Safavid state emphasized Shiism and Persian influences in Isfahan amid a rich Mughal court culture valuing art and learning, resulting in a vibrant cross-cultural interaction.
East Asia: China’s cultural renaissance emerged from internal developments, highlighting tradition and extensive publishing. In Japan, the imperial court upheld elite cultural norms while also giving rise to urban, pleasure-driven subcultures, leading to broad literacy and artistic expression.
Europe: The Enlightenment spurred cultural flourishing, emphasizing reason and human potential for progress, contributing to global expansion.
Africa: States like Asante, Oyo, and Benin showcased royal power through artistic endeavors while the Americas saw cultural syncretism, merging Euro-American influences with Indigenous and African traditions.