Political Science: KNOWLEDGE AND WISDOM IN POLITICAL SCIENCE

KNOWLEDGE AND WISDOM IN POLITICAL SCIENCE

INTRODUCTION

The meaning of Political Science in traditional society begins and ends with the state. It is described as the study of the government and state. The phrase Political Science highlights that it is the study of Power and Authority in modern times. Its scope is expanding, and it now includes the study of the State and Political System, as well as the study of government, power, human political behavior, and political concerns that influence politics directly or indirectly. We will analyze the meaning of Political Science in this lesson, as well as what defines knowledge and wisdom in the field of political science.

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, students will be able to:

define the meaning of Political Science

Distinguish between Political Science and Politics

Describe the scope of Political Science in terms of role of the State, functions of

government and its relationship with citizens

explain related concepts like ‘Religion and Politics’

2.2 DEFINITIONS, NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

2.2.1 Meaning of Political Science

Social science is an inter-discipline with several sub-disciplines. Political Science is a discipline of social science that studies the foundations of the state as well as government ideologies. "Politics begins and ends with the state," writes J W Garner. Politics, according to R G Gettel, is the "study of the state in the past, present, and future." Harold J Laski remarked that the study of politics is concerned with the lives of men and women in relation to an organised state.Political Science deals with the aspects of individuals in societyrelated to their activities and organizations devoted to achieve power, resolution of conflicts within a framework of the rules and laws laid down by the state.

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Political science is concerned with both empirical and normative problems. It examines scientific findings, evaluates existing political institutions and practices, and focuses on ways to improve them.

Normally a layperson associates Politics with party politics. But as students of Political Science, we know that Politics is much larger than that: it is systematic study of state and power.

2.2.2 Definitions of Political Science

In the words of R.G. Gettel: “Political science is a historical investigation of what the state has been, an analytical study of what the state is, and a politico-ethical discussion of what the state should be”.

John Robert Seeley stated “Political Science investigates the phenomena of the government as political economy deals with wealth, biology with life, algebra with numbers, and geometry with space and magnitude”.

In the view point of Lasswell: “Politics is the study of Influence and the influential”

Laski was of the opinion: “Political Science concerns itself with the life of men and women in relation to organized state”

The above definitions concluded that Political Science is a one of the branch of Social Science in which the philosophical, organizational, administrative context of the state and politics, the context of national and international, legal and organizational relations, and the comparative context of multiple political systems are discussed scientifically.

2.2.3 Nature of Political Science

According to Aristotle and other thinkers, politics is as old as human civilization and its importance could be examined from the fact that it touches all the aspect of human life, whether economy, culture, social relations or ethical norms. The meaning of politics varies with time and place.

In Ancient Bharat, that is India, as well as in Ancient Greece, politics was associated with ethics, and conceived in theological terms. During ancient times, Kautilya in Bharat who had given a realistic orientation to politics. The Bharatiya word for politics is rajneeti, meaning policy of

Normally a layperson associates Politics with party politics. But as students of Political Science, we know that Politics is much larger than that: it is systematic study of state and power.

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governance or rule. During ancient times, Bharatiya philosopher, political scientist and economist, Chanakya (3-4 Century BC), who was also an ancient Indian teacher, philosopher, economist and royal advisor of Emperor Chandra Gupta Maurya. He is traditionally identified as Kautilya or Vishnugupta, who authored the ancient Indian political treatise, the Arthashastra, in which he gave a realistic orientation to politics. He has elaborated his thoughts in Arthashastra, the first book on the subject. In this book, Chanakyahas given a detailed analysis of what is a state, and what is good governance.

The western word politics is derived from the Greek word polis means the state and is related with state. Political Science is defined as the science of the state encompassing the government and organization and theory and practice of the state.

The traditional concept of political science was supported by thinkers like R G Gettel, J W Garner, Bluntschli, Paul Janet, George Catlin, Hans Eulan and many others. A very narrow definition of Political Science as within the state there are other institutions and organizations like NGO‟s and Trade Unions, which although informal, have bearings on public policies and individual lives.

The modern political thinkers,Laswell and Robert Dahl have defined politics in terms of power, authority and influence. Laswell and Kaplan both have defined Political Science as the “study of shaping and sharing of power, which has shifted the focus from the mere study of structures and institutions to the study of actions and processes”. It may be noted that Chanakya had also talked about Power, Authority and Influence in hos Arthashastra.

Miller and Peter B Haris have defined Political Science as the study of conflict resolution. According to Haris, “the modern emphasis in the study of politics is laid on disagreements and reconciliation or resolution of these disagreements”.

From the above discussions, it can be concluded that Political Science has changed its meaning as per the changing circumstancesand with the changing perception of scholars of the discipline. These definitions could be categorized into traditional and modern approaches to political science. The traditional approach has defined political science as the study of state, government and formal institutions laying emphasis on the study of formal legal structures, etc. On the other hand, the modern approach has emphasized on the study of what is actually happening in the state; various forces, processes and informal structures operating within the state.

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2.2.4 Scope of Political Science

The scope of Political Science has been discussed under three aspects: Role of State, Citizen and Government and Liberty.

Role of state

Liberty

Citizen and Government

During 4th century BC, Chanakya had also talked about the ‘State’.Nearly 19 centuries later, this term ‘State’ in its modern sense was first used by Machiavelli (1469-1527), the Italian statesman. The study of the State has since remained the focal point for the political scientists. The following are the four elements of the State:

(a) the people;

(b) the territory on which they live;

(d) sovereignty, which implies unrestricted authority to take decisions and manage its own affairs.

All states should, in theory, be welfare states. A welfare state works to improve the well-being of its people, particularly the poor, needy, unemployed, and elderly. The Welfare State, it is now widely accepted, exists to promote the common good. As a result, the state's functions have multiplied. The state should function as a "trustee" of the people, which means it should hold people's power in trust for their wellbeing. People should not be seen as helpless subjects, but

2.2.4.1 Role of The State

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rather as co-rulers in government. Ram Rajya, when Rama was king, and afterwards Ashoka'sreign are two examples of welfare states in ancient Bharat. Both Rama and Ashoka were outstanding kings who cared about their subjects' well-being and performed tremendous things for them.

2.2.4.2 Citizens and Government

The government is the most powerful instrument provided to the state for achieving its aims. It sets laws and rules, implements them, maintains peace and order in the State/Country, and resolves conflicts of interest through its three organs, the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary. The government also strives to maintain the country's territorial integrity or unity. Modern democratic governments act as leaders for the growth and well-being of citizens and society. Citizens and government have a mutually beneficial relationship. The people are the member of the state. The state respects citizens' rights and expects them to fulfill certain duties. In terms of citizen rights, they can be classified into three categories: Civil, political and social

Civil Political

Social

CIVIL RIGHTS are the rights which are necessary for the liberty of the individual. They include the right to life and personal liberty, right to freedom of speech, expression and thought, right to own property, right to enter into contract, right to equality before law and equal protection by law. Equality before law means the absence of special privileges; equal protection of law should be given to all citizens for equal treatment.

POLITICAL RIGHTS include the right to vote and the right to contest election.

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SOCIAL RIGHTS include the right to economic welfare and security and the right to live with dignity according to standards prevailing in the society.

DUTIES OF CITIZENS:It is the citizens' principal responsibility to pay taxes to the government. They should work with the government and follow all laws and regulations. They should participate in disease prevention by vaccinating themselves and keeping their environment clean. To aid the government in controlling population increase, they should have small families. They should help catch and punish anti-social and anti-national people, as well as maintain public property. Furthermore, citizens of all classes, faiths, languages, and regions should work together to solve their problems rather than resort to violence. In this approach, the government may save a lot of resources, energy, and time and put it to better use.

2.2.4.3 Liberty

The term liberty is derived from the Latin word liber means free. Thus, liberty means freedom. Freedom is of the most important parameter for the development of an individual’s personality. Historically speaking, the term liberty was initially defined as absence of all restraints on an individual. This is known as the negative concept of liberty. Early liberalism championed negative liberty. John Stuart Mill, the nineteenth century English political philosopher, described, “Restraint as an evil”. Mill was especially worried about the restraints coming from the state and society.

However, since individuals live together in a society, complete absence of restraints would be neither possible nor desirable. Freedoms are opportunities which history has shown to be essential to the development of personality. The freedom of many requires restraint of law on the freedom of some. Later liberals supported the positive liberty.

Safeguards of Liberty

Declaration of rights of the individuals in the Constitution is considered as an important safeguard of liberty. In this way, the government can be prevented from encroaching upon the freedoms of the people.

Impartial judiciary is rightly called the watchdog of liberty. Without it, the liberty of the individuals would be meaningless.

The third important safeguard of liberty is the decentralization of power. History is witness to the fact that concentration of power has very often led to despotism.

Separation of powers, i.e. the executive, the legislature and the judiciary being separate, is a great ally of liberty. Montesquieu said, “Power should be a check on power.”

Rule of law or equality in the eyes of the law is also an important safeguard of liberty. This is the bulwark against discrimination based on caste, class, color, creed, etc. A large

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measure of social justice or diffusion of social and economic privileges is a prerequisite

for liberty.

A well-knit party system is also indispensable for the preservation of liberty.

Therefore, the above said institutional safeguards are inadequate to preserve liberty if the citizens themselves do not possess the proud spirit to preserve it. People should always be on their toes to ensure that their liberty is not encroached upon. It has been rightly said that Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.1

Fill in the blanks:

a) _______________ is one of the branches of social science, which deals with the foundations of the state and the principles of the government.

b) The word politics is derived from the Greek word polis, which means the ___________

c) Political Science deals with both ___________ facts and normative issues.

d) The ____________ is the most important instrument of the State.

e) Montesquieu said, “Power should be a check on ______________.”

2.3 POLITICS AND POLITICAL THEORY

2.3.1 Politics

‘Politics is about power and about state, about authority and how it works.’Max Weber, in his famous lecture of 1918, ‘Politics as a Vocation’, started by proposing that the concept of politics was ‘extremely broad-based and comprises any kind of independent leadership in action.’ In whatever context such leadership in action exists, politics is present.

In our terms, politics would include any situation where power relations exist, i.e., where people were constrained or dominated or subject to authority of one kind or another. It would also include situations where people were constrained by a set of structures or institutions rather than by the subjective will of persons. Politics is not necessarily a matter of government, nor solely concerned with the activities of politicians. Politics exists in any context where there is a structure of power and struggle for power in an attempt to gain or maintain leadership positions. Weber, after initially giving a very broad definition of politics in terms of general leadership, went on to produce a far more limited definition: ‘We wish to understand by politics’, he wrote,

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‘only the leadership, or the influencing of leadership, of a political association, hence today, of a state’. In this perspective, the state is the central political association. A political question is one that relates to the state, to the topic of who controls state power, for what purposes that power is used and with what consequences, and so on.

Therefore, Politics is a concern of everybody with a sense of responsibility. It is a struggle for power and every activity, which is concerned with the struggle for power is a political activity.

2.3.2 Political Theory

Political theory is one of the core areas in political science. In the contemporary times, it has emerged as an academic discipline. Earlier, those who engaged in this enterprise styled themselves as philosophers or scientists. Political theory is a theory about what political science is and the philosophy of something that is politics.

Political theory is the most appropriate term to employ in designating that intellectual tradition which affirms the possibility of transcending the sphere of immediate practical concerns and ‘viewing’ societal existence of humans from a critical perspective. It is political science in the full sense, and there could be no science without theory.

2.3.3 Nature of Political Theory

It always reflects the changes that occur in society. Political theories produced in response to the challenges, which emerge at different times. Hegel’s symbolic characterization of political theory as ‘the owl of Minerva takes flight when shadow of darkness falls’ is very apt. Political theorists, while indulging in theorization, pursue ideas not for the sake of fulfillment of their fads and fantasies, but in order to search those principles whose understanding can make life better. The nature of political theory can be discussed under the following heads:

Study of Power - Power has many forms. The government issues its powers under some laws and restrictions of the constitution to check the working of the departments.

Study of Political Ideology - Political theories study political ideologies. Ideology is the system of belief, values that govern people. Political theory expresses political value organization.

Study of Political Parties - In democratic countries like ours, Political parties influence the functions of the government. Political parties select the candidates for election and to form the government.

Study of Rights and Duties - Political theory is the study of rights and duties too.

Interdisciplinary Study - Political theory studies all subjects that affect the human

behavior and groom their personality.

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2.3.4 Significance of Political Theory

a) It helps to understand political reality.

b) It legitimates the government to maintain the supremacies.

c) It helps in the usage of proper means to fulfill the objectives

d) It solves the problems by peaceful settlements of states disputes.

e) It provides the knowledge of the nature of political system and its organizations.

Fill in

a) b)

c) d) e)

the blanks:

2.4

INTERCONNECTION WITH OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCE DISCIPLINES

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.2

Max Weber, in his famous lecture of _____________, ‘Politics as a Vocation’ ___________symbolic characterization of political theory as ‘the owl of Minerva takes flight when shadow of darkness falls’ is very apt.

____________ is the study of rights and duties

In Weber’s perspective, the _______________ is the central political association. Political theory helps to understand political ___________

Aristotle, the famous political thinker has called Political Science, The Master Science as it deals with human beings who are social beings having many dimensions - historical, political, economic, psychological, sociological etc. Political Science is concerned with the political aspect of humans and their interaction with the various dimensions - economic, social, psychological, sociological, historical etc.

Until 18th century specialization of Political Science didn’t exist since various aspects of society were studied under single discipline known as Moral Philosophy. In the words of Lipset, “Until the 18th Century the moral sciences, as the social sciences were then known, possessed greater unity than diversity”. The beginning of 19th century brought industrialization and with it came specialization of social sciences as it became difficult to study the various aspects of the complicated social phenomena under a single discipline.

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Easton writes, “The purely physical need for a division of labour helps to account for the distinctions among the social sciences. The social sciences have grown up as separate disciplines because and only because of this historical necessity. According to Easton, “Specialization in social sciences has stimulated a movement towards a reintegration of our compartmentalized knowledge; which should go a long way towards remedying these defects. Even though the future must witness an increase in the rate of cross-fertilization and in the degree of cooperation among the social sciences, there are few realists who envision the ultimate fusion and disappearance of all specialties into one body of knowledge”. In fact, it was the growth of empirical theory in political science, which developed after the Second World War, which shifted the focus from the study of state and government to the study of political behaviour and attitudes. It was this application of scientific methods to the study of political phenomenon and behavioralism, which brought in the need for interdisciplinary study of political science. Thus, Easton has rightly commented, “Theoretical revolution in the study of the political phenomena, in the form of empirical theory has opened the door to a new and more meaningful relationship between political science and the other disciplines”.

Thus, political science borrowed many theories and concepts, methods and techniques from other social sciences. For example, decision making theory from organizational field, structural functional approach from sociology and anthropology, action theory from sociology, system analysis from communication sciences etc. even new concepts like political culture, political socialization, political communication, political development etc. are being adopted and hence emphasis is being laid on the study of community power structure. Hence, one could say that it is this so-called behavioral revolution in social science and the growth of empirical enquiry to the issues of politics, which has given rise to the interdisciplinary approach in political science. Now, let us discuss in some detail the relationship of political science with some of the other social sciences.

2.4.1 Political Science and History

John Seeley once remarked that, “History without Political Science has no fruit and Political Science without History has no root.” Seeley might have exaggerated the relationship between the two yet there is intimate relationship between the two social sciences and they borrow heavily from each other. Political science deals with state and institutions related with it which have their roots in history and in order to understand them fully one has to trace their historical

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evolution. History through its vast resources provides good scope for comparative analysis of political structures and institutions of different times to arrive at the best possible ideal.

Robson was of the opinion that some knowledge of History is clearly indispensable for Political Science and cites the explanation offered by Professor R. Solatu at the Cambridge Conference (from 6 to 10 April, 1952). Professor Solatu said that he had been baffled all through his teaching career, especially during the 20 years he had spent in the Middle East, about how to teach the history of political philosophy to students whose historical background is usually inadequate, and often limited to purely political theory since the French Revolution.

2.4.2 Political Science and Sociology

Sociology is the science, which deals with human beings and their social relationship. On the other hand, Political science deals with the political activities of humans. Political activities influence and are influenced by the social life of humans. Political science studies state, government and power mostly while sociology provides sociological background to the forms of government, the nature of governmental organs, the laws and sphere of the state activities as determined by the social processes. As political science deals with state, likewise sociology also studies state as one of the human associations. The special study of the political life of society is very important for the complete study of the society as a whole. According to Morris Ginsberg ''Historically, Sociology has its main roots in politics and philosophy of history". The state, which is the centre of political science, is more of a social than political institution.

Sociology depends very much on political science in every respect. The state and governments make laws for the welfare of the society; the government removes social evils such as poverty, unemployment, dowry and so on from the society. The laws formed by the government are based on the social customs, traditions, mores, norms, etc. of the society. In the past, most of the changes that have taken place in political theory were only because of sociology. For the better understanding of political problems, knowledge about sociology is very essential because all political problems are mainly corrected with a social aspect.

Sociology studies all kinds of social relationship in a general way. On the other hand, political science studies only the political aspect of social relationship in a particular way. Sociology

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studies both organized and disorganized societies. However, political science studies only the politically organized societies. Sociology deals with both formal as well as informal relations of the society based on customs, traditions, folkways, mores, norms etc. Nevertheless, political science deals only with formal relations based on laws and order of the state.

2.4.3 Political Science and Psychology

Political science and psychology are closely related to each other and by merging them, a new discipline emerged known as political psychology, which tries to use theories and facts to explain and understand political problems. The State and its political institutions are the products of the human mind and can be better understood in terms of the mind.

Barker says, "The application of the psychological clue to the riddles of human activity has indeed become the fashion of the day. Government to be stable and popular must reflect and express the mental ideas and moral sentiments of those who are subject to its authority. In the democratic processes, the part played by social psychology is, thus, subtle” Modem psychologists study individual behaviour as well as group behaviour.

2.4.4 Political Science and Ethics

Ethics is concerned with normative questions such as what ought to be. Political science also deals with the normative issues in the pursuit of an ideal political order, but it is not confined to them alone. Both Political Science and Ethics aim at the noble and righteous life of humans, yet the former is primarily concerned with political governance, whereas the latter refers to human conduct and morality.

Political Science deals with political order while Ethics deals with moral order. Moral laws prescribe absolute standards of right and wrong, justice and injustice, but the laws of the State follow standard of expediency. However, an individual can pursue his/her moral ends only in and through state. That is why, Aristotle had said that a good citizen is possible in a good State and that a bad State makes bad citizens. He further maintained that while the State comes into existence for the sake of life, it continues to exist for the sake of good life. Good life is the end of the State and all political problems revolve around it. What is morally wrong cannot be politically right, because there cannot be a good State where wrong, or bad ethical ideals prevail.

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2.4.5 Political Science and Economics

The scholars of ancient Greece regarded economics as a sub-division of political science. Both political science and economics is concerned with the welfare of humankind and their relationship with the society. Hence, Adam Smith regarded them as parts of the same subject. Sir James Stewart believes that there exists the same relationship between Economics and Political Science as exist between the thrift and the family. He quoted, “what economy is in the family, political economy is in the state”. It may be worthwhile to note that Chanakya’s ‘Arthashastra’ deals polity as well as economy, and so can be viewed as a treatise on Political Science as well as Economics.

Harold Laswell defined politics as the process of deciding who gets what, when and how whereas economics deal with distribution of scarce resources deciding what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce. These two definitions represent the intrinsic relationship between the two social sciences.

The concept of individual liberty proved that there is close relationship between political science and economics. For the happiness and prosperity of the people, both the social sciences, political science and economics are essential. Terminologically too, there is a relationship between the two social sciences which deal with similar concepts like socialism, capitalism, communism, Marxism, etc.

2.4.6 Political Science and Anthropology

Anthropology deals with racial divisions of human beings, their physical character, their geographic divisions, their environmental and social relations,

and their cultural development. It is a science which studies humankind in relation to physical, social, and cultural development. Political anthropology challenges the illusion of the “autonomy of the political” assumed by political science to characterize so-called modern societies. The contribution of Anthropology to Political Science is considerable, and modern researches in the racial division, habits, customs, and organizations of primitive societies help us to know the real origin of the State and the development of various political institutions. The political behaviour of humans is greatly influenced by their racial origin and the environments in which they lives. Without a good knowledge of early societies, their laws, customs, manners and modes of government, we cannot understand accurately the modem institutions and the political behaviour of the people.

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“Knowledge of social anthropology," says Robson, is essential for the study or practice of colonial administration; and it is necessary also for several other special topics of political science, such as area studies, colour and racial conflicts, international organizations for assisting underdeveloped countries, immigration and emigration."

Harold D. Lasswell approvingly cites C.D. Lerner and says that the links between students of folk society—the distinctive subject-matter of social anthropology and those of Political Science have been closer in recent years. Anthropology has an inexhaustible source of data on every sphere of humans and their culture and Political Science, as Robson says, "will draw on various parts of this repository as problems gain in their urgency."

2.4.7 Political Science and Geography

In a rapidly changing international environment, the issues of economic, political and social security are gaining prominence. In this context, the tools of political science and geography are increasingly becoming important for understanding and analyzing global problems and arriving at policy alternatives. The two disciplines have been associated through the sub-fields of political geography, which covers geographical differences in voting patterns, for example, and through geo-politics, which examines how the great powers influence other parts of the planet. In the present context, globalization, interdisciplinary understandings of socio-environmental issues are increasingly becoming key to solving the problems of the future such as political instability in parts of the developing world because of climate change, for example. Environmental politics, and the politics of the environment, are becoming ever more important.

Match the columns:

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2.3

Robson Social Relationships Ethics Social Anthropology

Aristotle

Moral Order

Barker

Master Science

Sociology

Political Psychology

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2.5 Politics and Religion

The term religion emphasizes that ‘sacred’ notions have always made their presence felt in the domain of secular. Thus seen, religion is viewed as a form of orientation to the secular world in the sense that it is a source of knowledge, values and norms of a society. Religion is an ideology, a system of thought, located in the domain of the sacred. Though pertaining to the ‘other world’ and often associated with the ‘internal’ and the ‘spiritual domain’ of the individual and the collectivity, it has to do with the individuals and collectivities existing in ‘this world’, in that it offers a way to negotiate life. The idea of Politics is not as complex as that of Religion.

It is generally said that politics is a set of activities deeply entrenched in ‘this world,’ the secular world. These activities are those, which are geared towards the attainment, acquisition, maintenance and consolidation of power. Political activities include those, which use symbols and metaphors of the sacred domain to determine and gain ends that are not religious. They are directed towards creating distinct spaces for communities, implicit in which is a definite striving to attain power. Let us now understand the relation between religion and politics in societies. Religion and politics are inseparable; they have intertwined in a complex way. According to RomilaThapar “The relationship between religion and politics had complex dimensions in the past and cannot be explained away by a simple monocausal explanation that reduces everything to a minimalist religious motivation. Religion is a private matter so long as it remains within the thoughts of a person. When these thoughts are expressed in public and inspire public action such as building monuments for worship and organizing fellow believers into carrying out political and social functions, then religion ceases to be an exclusively personal matter”.

Religion is understood in different ways by different people. Philosophers, theologists and sociologists have different perspectives to understand religion. However, sociologists have understood religion as primarily a social phenomenon. Every society has religious beliefs, rites and organization. Religion, very often, influences our understanding of everyday life. In many societies, religion affects the way we relate to each other. Our religious beliefs often guide our social interaction.

Religion can be a unifying factor in some societies. However, in some societies it can be a matter of conflict. Religion broadly refers to:

a) Experiences of human beings as a collectivity in all parts of the world

b) Relationships between human beings, probably in all lifestyles

c) All facts of everyday human life, for example, education, politics, economy, etc.

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Therefore, it is very clear that religion is a social phenomenon. It is related with politics in an inextricable manner. Religion, as a phenomenon, is very difficult to define but central to the notion of religion is the idea of the ‘sacred’ as opposed to the ‘secular’ and the ‘profane’.

2.5.1 ReligionandPoliticsinTheWorld

Religion and politics have always been intertwined all over the world. Let us take a look at the history of religions. The ancient religions of the world are: Sanatan Dharma or Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism of Bhartiya or Indian origin; Judaism, Zoroastrianism and Christianity originated outside Bharat. Sanatan Dharma or Hinduism can be traced back to at least 5000 years back; Jainism is, probably, equally ancient. Then came Zoroastrianism in around 2000 BC. Judaism and Buddhism are believed to have started in around 6th century BC. Christianity came slightly more than 2000 years back, much after Judaism and Zoroastrianism.

We can trace the mingling of politics with religion even in the life of Christ, who was crucified. Christians were persecuted in the beginning, before Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe.

Islam, which came much later, nearly six centuries after Christianity, is the youngest religion (if we exclude Sikhism, which was initially a reform movement of Hinduism). Religious wars or Crusades were fought between Christians and Muslims. Most Islamic countries became Islamic with violence, massacre and forced conversion of the original natives – Jews, Parsis, Christians, etc. Followers of Zoroastrianism, who are called Parsis were the original inhabitants of Persia, modern day Iran. They were massacred and forcefully converted to Islam. Only a few Parsis survived who fled and took shelter in Bharat.

It has always been a conflict for supremacy and power, and so political.

2.5.2 ReligionandPoliticsinIndia

The ancient religions that originated in Bharat – Sanatan Dharma or Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism are more prone to peace and harmony. They believe in ‘VasudhaivaKutumbakam’ – the whole world is a family. For them, all human beings constitute one family. Different religions are different paths towards the same goal. Therefore, there is no record of persecution of people on religious basis in ancient Bharat. It was only after Muslims attacked, plundered and established their rule in India during the Medieval period, that persecution and massacre of the original natives or inhabitants of Bharat (Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and later Sikhs) started on the basis of religion. It continued when the Britishers came as traders and became rulers.

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The course of the freedom movement during British rule, starting in the late 19th century, had culminated in independence from British rule, along with the division of India in 1947, based on the two-nation theory. The partition was on the basis of religion and one part became a Muslim nation, that is Pakistan, which further got divided when Bangladesh, another Muslim country emerged. Since one nation, under the two-nation theory, had become a Muslim nation, it was logical, as well as fair and just for the other religious group, that is the Hindus (Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs sharing a common ethos with Hindus), that the other part becomes a Hindu nation. However, this did not happen because of various reasons.

Of course, it was unfair and unjust on Hindus. It was probably due to a misplaced andill- conceived idealism, that our leaders decided to make Bharat, that is India, a ‘secular’ country, rather than a Hindu Rashtra, which would have been logical as well as fair and just for Hindus. Not only that, even the idea of secularism was misinterpreted for the disadvantage of Hindus. The hallmark of secularism is ‘Common Civil Code’, which was also provided for in the Constitution of India. But even that never happened. On the contrary, several laws were enacted that disfavoured the majority community, that is Hindus. So, India could neither become a truly secular country, nor did it become a religion-based country. The short sightedness of our leaders led to this chaos, where politics and religion were intertwined in a very negative manner. The majority community, that is Hindus, continues to suffer because of this historic political blunder at the time of independence in 1947.

It has also led to the rise of religious fundamentalism, militantism and terrorism.