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Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

Define Anatomy and Physiology and Their Subdivisions

Anatomy is the study of the structure and organization of the body and its parts. It encompasses various sub-disciplines such as:

Physiology is the study of functions

• Gross (Macroscopic) Anatomy: Examination of large structures visible to the naked eye, often studied through dissection.

• Microscopic Anatomy: Examination of structures at the cellular level, including:

  • Histology: Study of tissues and their organization.

  • Cytology: Study of individual cells.

  • pathology: study of diseases

  • embryology: study of development of fetus

Explain the Principle of the Complement of Structure and Function

This principle underscores the inherent relationship between the structure of a body part and its function, emphasizing that anatomical features are designed to facilitate specific physiological roles. For example:

• The alveolar walls in the lungs are extremely thin, which maximizes diffusion rates for efficient gas exchange, illustrating how structure is tailored to function.

• The long limbs of certain animals facilitate swift movement, while the broad wings of birds assist in flight, showcasing adaptation to environmental needs.

Name the Levels of Structural Organization that Make Up the Human Body

The human body is organized into several hierarchical levels:

1. Chemical Level: Involves atoms and molecules, the basic building blocks of all matter.

2. Cellular Level: Cells are the smallest units of life, performing essential functions required for survival.

3. Tissue Level: Tissues are groups of similar cells working together for specific functions (e.g., muscle tissue).

4. Organ Level: Organs are structures composed of at least two different types of tissue that perform complex functions (e.g., heart).

5. Organ System Level: Organ systems consist of groups of organs working together to accomplish a common purpose (e.g., cardiovascular system).

6. Organism Level: The human body as a whole; all systems function together to maintain life.

List the Fundamental Characteristics Necessary to Maintain Life in Humans

Humans must exhibit several essential life characteristics:

• Maintaining Boundaries: Separating internal from external environments (e.g., skin).

• Movement: Activity of the body or its parts.

• Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli (e.g., reflex actions).

• Digestion: Breaking down food into usable nutrients.

• Metabolism: Sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the body.

• Excretion: Removal of waste products.

• Reproduction: Ability to produce offspring.

• Growth: Increasing in size and number of cells.

List the Survival Needs of the Body

To sustain life, the body requires:

• Oxygen: Essential for cellular respiration and energy production.

• Nutrients: Provides energy and materials for cellular processes.

• Water: A vital solvent in biochemical reactions and necessary for physiological processes.

• Appropriate Temperature: Maintains optimal function of enzymatic and metabolic processes (norm ~37°C).

• Atmospheric Pressure: Necessary for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungs.

Discuss Homeostasis, Homeostatic Control (Feedback Mechanisms), and Homeostatic Imbalances

• Homeostasis: The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes externally. Examples include regulating temperature, pH, and glucose levels.

• Homeostatic Control: Achieved through feedback mechanisms, which can be classified into:

  • Negative Feedback: Works to counteract changes, helping restore balance (e.g., thermoregulation).

  • Positive Feedback: Amplifies changes to achieve a specific outcome (e.g., childbirth contractions).

• Homeostatic Imbalances: Disruption can result in disorders or diseases, such as diabetes mellitus (insulin imbalances) or dehydration (loss of body fluid balance).

Define Body Planes and Sections

Body planes are anatomical references that divide the body into sections:

• Sagittal Plane: Divides left from right.

• Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides anterior from posterior.

• Transverse (Cross-Sectional) Plane: Divides superior from inferior.

Name the Major Body Cavities, Their Subdivisions, Associated Membranes, and Major Organs Contained in Them

• Dorsal Cavity: Contains the brain (cerebral cavity) and spinal cord (vertebral cavity); protected by membranes (meninges).

• Ventral Cavity: Divided into:

  • Thoracic Cavity: Houses pleural cavities (lungs) and mediastinum (heart, trachea).

  • Abdominopelvic Cavity: Further divided into abdominal cavity (digestive organs) and pelvic cavity (bladder, reproductive organs).

Name the 4 Quadrants or 9 Regions of the Abdominopelvic Cavity and List the Organs They Contain

Four Quadrants:

• Right Upper Quadrant: Liver, gallbladder.

• Left Upper Quadrant: Stomach, spleen.

• Right Lower Quadrant: Appendix, cecum.

• Left Lower Quadrant: Sigmoid colon, portions of intestines.

Nine Regions:

• Right Hypochondriac: Liver, gallbladder.

• Epigastric: Stomach.

• Left Hypochondriac: Spleen.

• Right Lumbar: Ascending colon.

• Umbilical: Small intestine.

• Left Lumbar: Descending colon.

• Right Iliac: Appendix.

• Hypogastric: Bladder, reproductive organs.

• Left Iliac: Sigmoid colon.

Discuss Methods of Medical Imaging

Modern imaging techniques are essential for diagnosing conditions:

• X-rays: Quick imaging primarily for bones and joint assessments.

• CT Scans: Provide cross-sectional images for detailed scrutiny of internal organs or structures.

• MRI: Utilizes magnetic fields for high-resolution images of soft tissues, crucial for viewing brains and muscles.

• Ultrasound: Employs sound waves; commonly used to examine soft tissues and fetal development.

• PET Scans: Useful for observing metabolic processes by tracking radioactive substances in tissues.

Define or Describe Clinical Terms and Homeostatic Imbalances Related to These Objectives

Clinical terminology associated with homeostasis includes conditions like:

• Diabetes Mellitus: Characterized by an imbalance in insulin levels affecting glucose regulation.

• Dehydration: Represents a fluid imbalance that can disrupt cellular functions and overall health.

• Hypothermia/Hyperthermia: Imbalances in body temperature that affect metabolic processes and can lead to severe health consequences.

Chapter 2: Chemistry Comes Alive

Define Atom, Subatomic Particles, Atomic Number, Isotope, and Radioisotope

An atom is the smallest unit of an element, consisting of a dense central nucleus made of

• Protons (positively charged particles)

• Neutrons (neutral particles)Surrounding the nucleus are fast-moving electrons (negatively charged particles). The atomic number of an element refers specifically to the number of protons in the nucleus, which determines the element's identity and its position on the periodic table.

Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element that have the same number of protons but differing numbers of neutrons, which results in different atomic masses. For example, carbon has isotopes like carbon-12 (6 protons, 6 neutrons) and carbon-14 (6 protons, 8 neutrons).

Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes that emit radiation as they decay over time into more stable forms. This property is utilized in various applications, including medical imaging and cancer treatments.

Define Element and List the 4 Most Abundant Elements in the Human Body

An element is a pure substance consisting entirely of one type of atom, characterized by its atomic number. The four most abundant elements in the human body, critical for life processes, are:

• Oxygen (O): Essential for aerobic respiration and forms a major part of water.

• Carbon (C): The backbone of organic molecules; allows for diversity in structures and functions.

• Hydrogen (H): Found in water and organic compounds; contributes to pH balance and energy production.

• Nitrogen (N): A component of amino acids and nucleic acids, vital for protein synthesis and genetic information.

Be Able to Use the Periodic Table to Explain Reactivity of an Element

The reactivity of an element primarily depends on the arrangement of its electrons, especially the valence electrons found in the outermost shell. Elements with a nearly full or nearly empty valence shell tend to be more reactive, seeking to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a stable electronic configuration (often approximated to the configuration of the nearest noble gas). Elements within the same group on the periodic table have similar electron configurations and, therefore, exhibit comparable reactivity patterns.

Define Molecule, Compound, Solution, Colloid, and Suspension

• Molecule: Formed when two or more atoms bond together (e.g., O₂, H₂O).

• Compound: A molecule that contains at least two different types of atoms (e.g., sodium chloride - NaCl).

• Solution: A homogeneous mixture with uniformly distributed solute particles dissolved in a solvent (e.g., saltwater).

• Colloid: A heterogeneous mixture where fine particles remain suspended throughout another substance (e.g., milk, fog).

• Suspension: A heterogeneous mixture containing solid particles that are large enough to eventually settle out (e.g., muddy water, salad dressing).

Differentiate Among Ionic, Covalent (Polar, Nonpolar), and Hydrogen Bonds

• Ionic Bonds: Formed through the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, leading to the formation of oppositely charged ions that attract each other (e.g., NaCl).

• Covalent Bonds: Involve the sharing of electrons between atoms. They can be:

  • Polar Covalent Bonds: Unequal sharing due to differing electronegativities, resulting in partial charges (e.g., water).

  • Nonpolar Covalent Bonds: Equal sharing of electrons, typically between identical atoms (e.g., O₂).

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions that occur between hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to electronegative atoms (e.g., O, N) and other electronegative atoms, playing a crucial role in the structure of water and influencing protein and nucleic acid structures.

Define the 3 Major Types of Chemical Reactions: Synthesis, Decomposition, and Exchange

1. Synthesis Reactions: Two or more reactants combine to form a larger, more complex product (A + B → AB).

2. Decomposition Reactions: A compound breaks down into smaller products (AB → A + B).

3. Exchange Reactions: Elements in different compounds exchange places, forming new compounds (AB + CD → AD + CB). These reactions are essential in biological processes such as metabolism.

Describe Factors that Affect Chemical Reaction Rates

Several factors influence the rate at which chemical reactions occur:

• Temperature: Increased temperature typically speeds up reactions by providing more energy to molecules, which increases the frequency and force of collisions.

• Concentration: A higher concentration of reactants generally leads to an increased rate of reaction, as there are more molecules available to collide.

• Particle Size: Smaller particles have a larger surface area relative to their volume, allowing for more collisions and faster reactions.

• Presence of Catalysts: Catalysts are substances that speed up reaction rates without undergoing permanent changes themselves. They work by lowering the activation energy needed for the reactions to proceed.

Discuss Important Inorganic Compounds in the Human Body

Inorganic compounds play a vital role in physiological processes. Major inorganic compounds include:

• Water: Serves as a solvent for biochemical reactions, regulates temperature, and participates in chemical reactions.

• Oxygen: Critical for ATP production in cellular respiration.

• Carbon Dioxide: A metabolic waste product expelled from the body; plays a role in pH balance.

• Salts: Important for electrical gradients in nerve impulses and muscle contractions; include electrolytes (e.g., Na⁺, K⁺).

• Acids and Bases: Regulate pH levels in body fluids. For instance, bicarbonate acts as a buffer in the blood.

• Buffers: Substances that resist changes in pH by absorbing excess H⁺ or OH⁻ ions, crucial for homeostasis in bodily fluids.

Describe the Monomers, General Structures, and Biological Functions of Organic Compounds

Organic compounds are vital for life and consist of large molecules made from smaller units (monomers):

• Carbohydrates: Composed of monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose) linked together. They serve as primary energy sources and structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants).

• Lipids: Primarily made up of fatty acids and glycerol. They function in energy storage, insulation, and making up cell membranes (e.g., phospholipids).

• Proteins: Formed from amino acids; they serve diverse functions, including acting as enzymes, transporting molecules, supporting structural integrity, and facilitating movement.

• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA are made from nucleotide monomers; they are essential for genetic information storage, transfer, and protein synthesis.

Explain the Role of ATP in Cell Metabolism

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is widely recognized as the energy currency of the cell. It is formed during cellular respiration and composed of a ribose sugar, adenine base, and three phosphate groups. Energy is released when ATP is hydrolyzed into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate, which can then be harnessed for various physiological processes such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, and synthesis of biological macromolecules. The continuous production and utilization of ATP are fundamental to sustaining cellular activities and homeostasis.

Chapter 3 Cells: The Living Units

1. Define cell and the cell theory.A cell is the basic unit of life, capable of performing all life processes. The cell theory states that all living organisms are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

2. Describe the structure and function of the cell membrane. Compare the 3 types of cell junctions.The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, controlling the entry and exit of substances. The three types of cell junctions include:

   • Tight junctions: prevent leakage between cells

   • Desmosomes: hold adjacent cells together for structural integrity

   • Gap junctions: allow communication between adjacent cells through small protein channels.

3. Relate plasma membrane structure to active and passive transport processes.The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane allows for selective permeability, enabling passive transport processes like diffusion and facilitated diffusion, and active transport processes that require ATP to move substances against concentration gradients.

4. Discuss osmosis, simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis.

   • Osmosis: diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

   • Simple diffusion: movement of small nonpolar molecules directly through the membrane.

   • Facilitated diffusion: movement of larger or polar molecules through protein channels.

   • Active transport: moving molecules against their gradient using ATP.

   • Endocytosis: transporting molecules into the cell via vesicles

   • Exocytosis: transporting substances out of the cell using vesicles.

5. Define membrane potential. Explain how the resting potential is established and maintained.Membrane potential is the voltage difference across a membrane. Resting potential is established by the differential distribution of ions, primarily sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) across the neuron membrane, maintained by the sodium-potassium pump.

6. Describe the composition of the cytosol: types of inclusions and structure/function of organelles.Cytosol is the gel-like fluid within the cell, containing water, ions, and organelles. Organelles include:

   • Mitochondria (ATP production)

   • Ribosomes (protein synthesis)

   • Endoplasmic Reticulum (synthesis, folding, modification of proteins and lipids)

   • Golgi Apparatus (modifying, sorting, packaging proteins)

   • Lysosomes (digestion of macromolecules)

   • Peroxisomes (detoxifying enzymes).

7. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus.The nucleus houses genetic material (DNA), surrounded by a nuclear envelope with pores that regulate transport; it is the site of DNA replication and transcription.

8. List the phases of the cell life cycle and describe the key events of each phase.The cell life cycle consists of interphase (G1: cell growth, S: DNA synthesis, G2: preparation for mitosis) and mitotic phase (mitosis: division of nucleus and cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm).

9. Describe the process of DNA replication.DNA replication involves unwinding of the double helix, enzyme-mediated synthesis of complementary strands, leading to two identical DNA molecules for distribution into daughter cells.

10. Define gene and genetic code. Explain the function of genes.A gene is a segment of DNA that encodes for a protein, serving as a template for protein synthesis and influencing traits and functions. The genetic code is a set of rules for translating DNA sequences into amino acids.

11. Describe protein synthesis and the roles of DNA and RNA in each phase.Protein synthesis includes transcription (DNA to mRNA) in the nucleus and translation (mRNA to protein) at ribosomes, with tRNA bringing amino acids to build proteins.

12. Discuss some theories of cell differentiation and aging. Define apoptosis.Cell differentiation involves cells becoming specialized in function and structure, influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Aging theories suggest cumulative damage to cells and progressive loss of function. Apoptosis is programmed cell death, a normal process for development and maintaining homeostasis.

13. Define or describe clinical terms and homeostatic imbalances related to these objectives.Clinical terms include apoptosis in cancer (failure of cell death mechanism) and differentiation in stem cell therapy applications.

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Chapter 4 Tissue: The Living Fabric

1. Epithelial Tissue Characteristics

• Structural Characteristics: Epithelial tissue comprises closely packed cells with minimal extracellular matrix, forming continuous sheets. It has polarity (an apical surface facing the environment and a basolateral surface attached to underlying connective tissue) and has a basement membrane that anchors it to the underlying structures.

• Functional Characteristics: It serves functions such as protection, absorption, secretion, sensation, and filtration. Epithelial tissue is also avascular (lacks blood vessels) and relies on diffusion for nutrient uptake and waste removal.

2. Types of Epithelia

• Simple Squamous Epithelium: Thin and flat, facilitating diffusion; found in alveoli of lungs and lining blood vessels.

• Cuboidal Epithelium: Cube-shaped cells, involved in secretion and absorption; found in kidney tubules and glands.

• Columnar Epithelium: Tall cells that may have microvilli or cilia; functions in secretion and absorption; found in the digestive tract.

• Stratified Epithelium: Multiple cell layers providing protection; found in the skin and mouth.

• Transitional Epithelium: Specialized to stretch; found in the urinary bladder.

3. Glands and Their Types

• Definition: Glands are specialized epithelial cells or organ structures that produce and secrete substances such as hormones, sweat, or saliva.

• Exocrine Glands: Secrete products onto epithelial surfaces (e.g., sweat glands).

• Endocrine Glands: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (e.g., thyroid gland).

4. Exocrine Gland Classification

• Structurally: Can be classified as unicellular (e.g., goblet cells) or multicellular (e.g., salivary glands).

• Functionally: Classified as merocrine (release products via exocytosis), holocrine (cells rupture to release), and apocrine (part of the cell buds off to release products).

5. Common Characteristics of Connective Tissue

• General Structure: Composed of a few cells scattered within a large extracellular matrix, which varies in consistency. Contains ground substance, fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular), and a diverse array of cells.

• Function: Provides support, binds other tissues together, stores energy, and helps in transportation (e.g., blood).

6. Types of Connective Tissues

• Loose Connective Tissue: Supports organs and structures, providing flexibility (e.g., adipose tissue stores energy).

• Dense Connective Tissue: Provides strength (e.g., tendons and ligaments).

• Specialized Connective Tissues: Includes cartilage for cushioning, bone for structural support, and blood for transportation.

7. Nervous Tissue Characteristics

• Composition: Made up of neurons (nerve cells) and glial cells (supporting cells). Neurons transmit signals, while glial cells provide support, nutrition, and protection.

• Function: Responsible for transmitting electrical impulses, processing information, and supporting all nervous functions.

8. Muscle Tissue Structures

• Skeletal Muscle: Striated, voluntary control; attached to bones; responsible for movement.

• Cardiac Muscle: Striated, involuntary control; found in the heart; responsible for pumping blood.

• Smooth Muscle: Non-striated, involuntary control; located in walls of hollow organs (e.g., intestines, blood vessels); responsible for involuntary movements.

9. Membranes

• Cutaneous Membrane: The skin; protects underlying tissues, involved in thermoregulation.

• Mucous Membrane: Lines body cavities opening to the exterior; involved in absorption and secretion.

• Serous Membrane: Lines closed body cavities and covers organs; reduces friction between moving organs.

10. Tissue Repair Process

• Healing Process: Involves inflammation to prevent infection, regeneration of tissue with similar cells, and fibrosis (scar tissue formation) if tissue cannot be fully healed.

11. Clinical Terms and Homeostatic Imbalances

• Clinical Terms: Terms related to tissue pathology, such as fibrosis (excessive scar tissue), necrosis (tissue death), and tumors (abnormal tissue growth).

• Homeostatic Imbalances: Conditions such as inflammatory diseases (e.g., dermatitis) and systemic conditions affecting tissue integrity (e.g., autoimmune diseases).

Chapter 5 The Integumentary System

1. Composition and Functions of Epidermis and Dermis

• Epidermis: Outer layer made primarily of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Functions include protection and sensation. Contains keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells.

• Dermis: Deeper layer of connective tissue; contains blood vessels, nerves, and skin appendages (hair follicles and glands). Provides structural support and houses sensory receptors.

2. Skin Color Factors

• Contributors: Melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin influence skin color. Environmental factors (UV radiation) and genetics play significant roles. Changes in color (e.g., jaundice or cyanosis) can indicate underlying health issues.

3. Sebaceous and Sweat Glands

• Sebaceous Glands: Secrete sebum (oil) to lubricate skin; found everywhere except palms and soles.

• Sweat Glands: Eccrine glands regulate body temperature via sweat. Apocrine glands are associated with hair follicles and produce odor-containing secretions.

4. Hair Follicle Structure

• Structure: Composed of hair bulb (where growth occurs), follicle, and arrector pili muscle.

• Function: Protection and thermal regulation; hair growth is cyclical (anagen, catagen, telogen phases).

5. Structure of Nails

• Composition: Made of hard keratin; includes nail plate, nail bed, and cuticle.

• Function: Protects fingertip and enhances sensation.

6. Functions of Integumentary System

• Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, sensory reception, vitamin D synthesis, and barrier against pathogens.

7. Skin Cancer Types

• Types: Basal cell carcinoma (most common, occurs in basal layer), squamous cell carcinoma (arises from keratinocytes), and melanoma (most dangerous, arises from melanocytes).

8. Burn Classification

• Types: First-degree (epidermis), second-degree (epidermis and part of dermis), and third-degree (full thickness, damage to dermis and beyond).

9. Age-Related Changes in Skin

• Changes: Thinning of the epidermis, reduction in collagen and elastin, decreased oil production, and reduced vascularization, leading to increased wrinkles, dryness, and susceptibility to injury.

10. Clinical Terms and Homeostatic Imbalances

• Terms: Decubitus ulcers (bedsores), eczema (skin inflammation), and psoriasis (rapid skin turnover). Homeostatic imbalances often manifest in terms of skin integrity and function.

Chapter 8 Joints

1. Define joint and discuss classifications of joints.

2. Describe the structure and function of synovial joints, including accessory structures. 3. Name and provide examples of the six types of synovial joints.

4. Describe movements allowed by synovial joints. of articulating bones, anatomical characteristics of the joint, movements allowed, and joint stability

5. Describe the elbow, knee, hip, jaw, and shoulder joints in terms.

6. Compare the most common types of arthritis.

7. Define or describe clinical terms and homeostatic imbalances related to these objectives.

Chapter 9 Muscles and Muscle Tissue

1. Compare and contrast the basic types of muscle tissue.

2 List the functions of muscle tissue.

3. Describe the gross and microscopic structure of skeletal muscle.

4. Describe the sliding filament model of muscle contraction.

5. Describe the events that occur at the neuromuscular junction.

6. Describe the events of excitation-contraction coupling

. 7. Define motor unit and muscle twitch and describe the three phases of a muscle twitch.

8. Explain how smooth, graded contractions of a skeletal muscle are produced.

9. Differentiate between isometric and isotonic contraction.

10. Describe 3 ways in which ATP is regenerated during skeletal muscle contraction.

11. Define oxygen deficit and muscle fatigue. List causes of muscle fatigue.

12. Describe factors that influence the force, velocity, and duration of skeletal muscle contraction.

13. Describe the 3 types of skeletal muscle fibers.

14. Describe the effects of aerobic and resistance exercise on skeletal muscles.

15. Define or describe clinical terms and homeostatic imbalances related to these objectives.

Chapter 10 The Muscular System

1. Describe the function of prime movers, antagonists, synergists, and fixators.

2. List the criteria used in naming muscles. Name the common patterns of fascicle arrangements.

3. Describe the 3 types of lever systems.

4. Give the functions of selected muscles.

5. Define or describe clinical terms and homeostatic imbalances related to these objectives.

Chapter 11 Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue

1. List the functions of the nervous system.

2. Explain the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system.

3. List the types of neuroglia and their functions.

4. Define neuron, its structural components, and function.

5. Classify neurons structurally and functionally.

6. Define resting membrane potential and describe its electrochemical basis.

7. Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials.

8. Explain how action potentials are generated and propagated along neurons

. 9. Define relative and absolute refractory periods.

10. Define saltatory conduction and compare it to conduction along unmyelinated fibers. 11. Define synapse. Describe electrical and chemical synapses.

12. Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.

13. Describe how synaptic events are integrated and modified.

14. Define neurotransmitter and name several classes of neurotransmitters.

15. Describe common patterns of neuronal organization and processing.
16. Define or describe clinical terms and homeostatic imbalances related to these objectives.

Chapter 12 The Central Nervous System

1. Name the major regions of the adult brain. Name and locate the ventricles of the brain.

2. List the major lobes, fissures, and functional areas of the cerebral cortex.

3. Explain lateralization of hemispheric function.

4. Differentiate between commissures, association fibers, and projection fibers.

5. Describe the general function of the basal nuclei.

6. Describe the location, subdivisions, and functions of the diencephalon.

7. Identify the regions and functions of the brain stem.

8. Describe the structure and function of the cerebellum.

9. Describe the location and function of the limbic system and reticular formation.

10. Define EEG and distinguish between the 4 brain wave types.

11. Discuss consciousness, sleep, sleep-wake cycles, and memory.

12. Describe how the meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood-brain barrier protect the CNS. 13. Describe the formation and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid.

14. Describe the gross and microscopic structure of the spinal cord.

15. List the major spinal cord tracts and classify each as motor or sensory.

16. Define or describe clinical terms and homeostatic imbalances related to these objectives.

Chapter 13 The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity

1. Classify general sensory receptors by structure, stimulus detected, and body location.

2. Outline the events that lead to sensation and perception. Describe sensory adaptation.

3. Describe the process of nerve regeneration.

4. Name the 12 cranial nerves. Indicate the structures innervated by each.

5. Describe spinal nerves. Name major plexuses and the function of nerves arising from each

. 6. Name the components of a reflex arc. Distinguish between autonomic and somatic reflexes.

7. Define or describe clinical terms and homeostatic imbalances related to these objectives.

Chapter 14 The Autonomic Nervous System

1. Define autonomic nervous system and explain its relationship to the peripheral nervous system.

2. Compare the somatic and autonomic nervous systems

. 3. Compare and contrast the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

4. Describe the site of CNS origin, locations of ganglia, general fiber pathways, and effects on major organs.

5. Discuss visceral reflexes.

6. Define cholinergic and adrenergic fibers and list their receptors.

7. Describe the clinical importance of drugs that mimic or inhibit adrenergic or cholinergic effects.

8. Define or describe clinical terms and homeostatic imbalances related to these objectives.

Chapter 15 The Special Senses

1. Describe the structure and function of accessory eye structures, eye layers, the lens, and humors.

2. Trace the pathway of light through the eyes to the retina and explain how light is focused for distant and close vision.

3. Describe the events involved in the stimulation of photoreceptors by light, and compare and contrast the roles of rods and cones in vision.

4. Compare and contrast light and dark adaptation.

5. Trace the visual pathway to the visual cortex and briefly describe the steps in visual processing.

6. Describe the location, structure, and afferent pathways of taste and smell receptors, and explain how these receptors are activated.

7. Describe the structure and function of the outer, middle, and internal ears.

8. Describe the sound production pathway to the fluids of the internal ear, and follow the auditory pathway from the spiral organ of Corti to the temporal cortex.

9. Explain how one is able to differentiate pitch and loudness.

10. Explain how the balance organs of the semicircular canals and vestibule help maintain dynamic and static equilibrium.

11. List changes that occur in the special sense organs with aging.

12. Define or describe clinical terms and homeostatic imbalances related to these objectives.

Chapter 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissues

1. Major Regions of the Skeleton: The human skeleton is divided into two major regions:

   • Axial Skeleton: Composed of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. Its primary function is to protect vital organs, support the body, and facilitate movement by providing points of attachment for muscles.

   • Appendicular Skeleton: Comprised of the limbs and the girdles (pectoral and pelvic) that attach them to the axial skeleton. Its main function is to facilitate movement and manipulate the environment.

2. Classification of Bones: Bones can be classified into several categories based on their shapes and functions:

   • Long Bones: Elongated shape found in the limbs (e.g., femur, humerus), primarily function as levers.

   • Short Bones: Cube-shaped bones (e.g., carpals and tarsals) that provide stability and support without moving much.

   • Flat Bones: Thin, flattened, and usually curved bones (e.g., skull, ribs, sternum), offering protection and a broad surface for muscle attachment.

   • Irregular Bones: Complex shapes (e.g., vertebrae and pelvis) fulfilling various functions.

   • Sesamoid Bones: Small round bones (e.g., patella) embedded in tendons to protect joints.

3. Functions of Bones:

   • Support: Provides a structural framework for the body.

   • Protection: Encases vital organs (e.g., brain, heart).

   • Movement: Serves as levers for muscles to produce movement.

   • Mineral Storage: Stores minerals (e.g., calcium, phosphorus) essential for bodily functions.

   • Blood Cell Production: Hematopoiesis occurs in the red bone marrow, producing blood cells.

   • Energy Storage: Adipocytes in yellow bone marrow store fats for energy.

4. Gross Anatomy of Bones:

   • Long Bone: Typically consists of a diaphysis (shaft), epiphyses (ends), articular cartilage covering the ends, and a medullary cavity filled with yellow marrow. The periosteum covers the outer surface, providing attachment for ligaments and tendons.

   • Flat Bone: Composed of two layers of compact bone with spongy bone (diploë) sandwiched between. Examples include the frontal bone; serves as a protective layer for vital organs.

5. Histology of Bone:

   • Compact Bone: Dense and forms the outer layer of bones, composed of osteons (Haversian systems) that provide structural integrity. It consists of mineralized matrix, osteocytes, and a central canal for blood vessels.

   • Spongy Bone: Lighter and less dense, consisting of a network of trabeculae (supporting strands). Red bone marrow is located within the spaces between trabeculae for blood cell production.

6. Chemical Composition of Bone:

   • Bone matrix consists of approximately 30% organic components (mainly collagen fibers) and 70% inorganic mineral components (primarily hydroxyapatite, a calcium phosphate), giving bones strength and resilience.

7. Intramembranous vs. Endochondral Ossification:

   • Intramembranous Ossification: Direct formation of bone from mesenchymal tissue, primarily seen in flat bones of the skull.

   • Endochondral Ossification: Bone formation occurs through the replacement of hyaline cartilage; common for long bone development (e.g., femur).

8. Growth Types:

   • Interstitial Growth: Increases length of bones, involves chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate (growth plate).

   • Appositional Growth: Increases the thickness of bones; osteoblasts in the periosteum add new bone tissue to the surface. Hormones such as growth hormone and sex hormones regulate these processes.

9. Bone Remodeling:

   • Continuous process involving bone resorption (by osteoclasts) and bone formation (by osteoblasts). It is regulated by hormones such as parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin, as well as mechanical stress (Wolff's Law), which promotes bone strength where needed.

10. Fracture Repair:

• Repair involves:

  1. Hematoma Formation: Blood clots form at fracture site.

  2. Fibrocartilaginous Callus Formation: collagen and cartilage repair the fracture.

  3. Bony Callus Formation: osteoblasts assist in converting the callus into a bony tissue.

  4. Bone Remodeling: excess bone is removed, restoring original shape. Common fracture types include simple (closed), compound (open), comminuted (shattered), and greenstick (partial).

11. Clinical Terms and Homeostatic Imbalances:

• Osteoporosis: Condition characterized by reduced bone density.

• Osteomalacia/Rickets: Softening of bone due to vitamin D deficiency, affecting mineralization.

Chapter 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissues

1. Major Regions of the Skeleton: The human skeleton is divided into two major regions:

   • Axial Skeleton: Composed of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. Its primary function is to protect vital organs, support the body, and facilitate movement by providing points of attachment for muscles.

   • Appendicular Skeleton: Comprised of the limbs and the girdles (pectoral and pelvic) that attach them to the axial skeleton. Its main function is to facilitate movement and manipulate the environment.

2. Classification of Bones: Bones can be classified into several categories based on their shapes and functions:

   • Long Bones: Elongated shape found in the limbs (e.g., femur, humerus), primarily function as levers.

   • Short Bones: Cube-shaped bones (e.g., carpals and tarsals) that provide stability and support without moving much.

   • Flat Bones: Thin, flattened, and usually curved bones (e.g., skull, ribs, sternum), offering protection and a broad surface for muscle attachment.

   • Irregular Bones: Complex shapes (e.g., vertebrae and pelvis) fulfilling various functions.

   • Sesamoid Bones: Small round bones (e.g., patella) embedded in tendons to protect joints.

3. Functions of Bones:

   • Support: Provides a structural framework for the body.

   • Protection: Encases vital organs (e.g., brain, heart).

   • Movement: Serves as levers for muscles to produce movement.

   • Mineral Storage: Stores minerals (e.g., calcium, phosphorus) essential for bodily functions.

   • Blood Cell Production: Hematopoiesis occurs in the red bone marrow, producing blood cells.

   • Energy Storage: Adipocytes in yellow bone marrow store fats for energy.

4. Gross Anatomy of Bones:

   • Long Bone: Typically consists of a diaphysis (shaft), epiphyses (ends), articular cartilage covering the ends, and a medullary cavity filled with yellow marrow. The periosteum covers the outer surface, providing attachment for ligaments and tendons.

   • Flat Bone: Composed of two layers of compact bone with spongy bone (diploë) sandwiched between. Examples include the frontal bone; serves as a protective layer for vital organs.

5. Histology of Bone:

   • Compact Bone: Dense and forms the outer layer of bones, composed of osteons (Haversian systems) that provide structural integrity. It consists of mineralized matrix, osteocytes, and a central canal for blood vessels.

   • Spongy Bone: Lighter and less dense, consisting of a network of trabeculae (supporting strands). Red bone marrow is located within the spaces between trabeculae for blood cell production.

6. Chemical Composition of Bone:

   • Bone matrix consists of approximately 30% organic components (mainly collagen fibers) and 70% inorganic mineral components (primarily hydroxyapatite, a calcium phosphate), giving bones strength and resilience.

7. Intramembranous vs. Endochondral Ossification:

   • Intramembranous Ossification: Direct formation of bone from mesenchymal tissue, primarily seen in flat bones of the skull.

   • Endochondral Ossification: Bone formation occurs through the replacement of hyaline cartilage; common for long bone development (e.g., femur).

8. Growth Types:

   • Interstitial Growth: Increases length of bones, involves chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate (growth plate).

   • Appositional Growth: Increases the thickness of bones; osteoblasts in the periosteum add new bone tissue to the surface. Hormones such as growth hormone and sex hormones regulate these processes.

9. Bone Remodeling:

   • Continuous process involving bone resorption (by osteoclasts) and bone formation (by osteoblasts). It is regulated by hormones such as parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin, as well as mechanical stress (Wolff's Law), which promotes bone strength where needed.

10. Fracture Repair:

• Repair involves:

  1. Hematoma Formation: Blood clots form at fracture site.

  2. Fibrocartilaginous Callus Formation: collagen and cartilage repair the fracture.

  3. Bony Callus Formation: osteoblasts assist in converting the callus into a bony tissue.

  4. Bone Remodeling: excess bone is removed, restoring original shape. Common fracture types include simple (closed), compound (open), comminuted (shattered), and greenstick (partial).

11. Clinical Terms and Homeostatic Imbalances:

• Osteoporosis: Condition characterized by reduced bone density.

• Osteomalacia/Rickets: Softening of bone due to vitamin D deficiency, affecting mineralization.