Semester 2 Final Study Guide

Cell Structure and Function

  • Cell Parts: Includes bacteria, viruses, cell membrane.

  • Cell Transport: Diffusion, osmosis.

  • Photosynthesis

  • Cell Division: Mitosis/Meiosis

  • Cell Cycle

  • Karyotypes/Chromosomes

  • DNA

  • Genetics

  • Ecology

Key Questions in Biology

  1. What is biology?

    • The study of life.

  2. What are the two types of cells?

    • Prokaryotic and eukaryotic.- Prokaryotic: Unicellular organisms, mostly bacteria.

      • Eukaryotic: Multicellular organisms, mostly plants and animals.

  3. What is the cell theory?

    • All living things are made up of cells.

    • Cells are the smallest working units of all living things.

    • Cells come from pre-existing cells through cell division.

  4. Structure

  5. What are the main parts of the cell and their functions?

    • Nucleus: Contains DNA.

    • Cell Membrane: Controls the movement in and out of cells and provides protection.

    • Cytoplasm: Contains hereditary mixture.

    • Mitochondria: Makes energy through ATP.

  6. What is the difference between bacteria and viruses?

    • Bacteria: Unicellular and living.

    • Viruses: Non-living and multicellular.

  7. What are the pros and cons of bacteria/viruses?

    • Bacteria: Help make interesting food and decompose organic matter.

    • Viruses: Require another cell to work/function.

  8. What surrounds the cell?

    • The cell membrane.

  9. What is the cell membrane composed of?

    • Phospholipid bilayer (two layers of phospholipids).- Phospholipids are made up of a phosphate head (water-loving) and fatty acid tails (water-fearing).

  10. What are the different types of cell transport, what do they do, and what do they move?

    • Passive Transport: From high to low concentration, requires no energy.

    • Active Transport: From low to high concentration, requires energy.

    • Both involve the movement of substances across the cell membrane.

  11. What is photosynthesis?

    • The process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy.

  12. What are the main parts needed for photosynthesis?

    • Carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight.

  13. Explain the chloroplast and what its different parts are.

    • Chloroplast: Organelle responsible for photosynthesis in plant cells.- Parts: Outer membrane, inner membrane, thylakoids, granum, and stroma.

  14. What factors affect photosynthesis?

    • Light intensity, temperature, and availability of both CO<em>2CO<em>2 and H</em>2OH</em>2O.

  15. What is cellular respiration?

    • The process of converting sugar into ATP (energy).

  16. What is the difference between anaerobic and aerobic respiration?

    • Anaerobic: Making energy with no oxygen.

    • Aerobic: Making energy with oxygen.

  17. What is fermentation?

    • Occurs when no oxygen is present.- Two types: Alcoholic and lactic acid.

  18. What is lactic acid?

    • An organic acid produced by the body when cells break down carbohydrates for energy.

  19. What are the two main types of cell division? And what are the differences between the two?

    • Mitosis: Division of the nucleus, has four stages.

    • Meiosis: Chromosome replication, around 10 stages.

  20. Describe the cell cycle and all of its stages.

    • Cell Cycle: The cell is preparing for cell division.- Stages: Interphase (G1, S, G2 - cell growth and preparation), prophase (condense chromosomes), metaphase (line up in middle), telophase (sister chromatids at opposite poles).

  21. What are chromosomes? What are their parts?

    • Chromosomes: Thread-like structures found in animal cells.- Parts: Centromeres and chromatids.

  22. What are karyotypes?

    • Photographs of one's chromosomes, grouped in pairs by size.

  23. How many chromosomes are in somatic (body) cells vs. sex cells?

    • Somatic cells: 46 chromosomes.

    • Sex cells: 23 chromosomes each.

  24. Who was the first to photograph the structure of DNA?

    • Rosalind Franklin.

  25. Compare DNA vs. RNA.

    • DNA: Double helix, contains nitrogen bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.

    • RNA: Single-stranded, contains similar bases except thymine is replaced by uracil.

  26. What is DNA composed of?

    • Phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose), and 4 nitrogen bases.

  27. What are the 4 nitrogenous bases (base pairs)?

    • Adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), cytosine (C) - A-T and G-C.

  28. What is DNA replication?

    • The process in which DNA is copied in cells before it divides.

  29. What is transcription?

    • Information being transferred from DNA to RNA.

  30. What is translation?

    • RNA is translated into proteins.

  31. What is protein synthesis?

    • mRNA being coded into amino acids (proteins).

  32. Define codons vs. anticodons?

    • Codons: Series of 3 nucleotides.

    • Anticodons: Complimentary to the mRNA strand.

  33. Label a DNA molecule

    • Nitrogenous bases

    • Sugar

    • Phosphate backbone

    • Base pair

  34. How many amino acids are there in nature?

    • 20 amino acids.

  35. Define genetics.

    • The branch of biology that focuses on heredity.

  36. Define heredity.

    • The passing of traits from parent to offspring.

  37. Define dihybrid, monohybrid crosses.

    • Dihybrid: Mainly two genes.

    • Monohybrid: One gene.

  38. What is the difference between phenotypes and genotypes?

    • Phenotypes: Physical traits/appearance.

    • Genotypes: Sets of alleles.

  39. Homozygous vs. Heterozygous

    • Homozygous: Two alleles are the same.

    • Heterozygous: Two alleles are different.

  40. Alleles?

    • Inherited genes from each parent.

  41. Types of traits?

    • Homozygous dominant, heterozygous, homozygous recessive.

  42. Know what a Punnett square is and how to complete one.

    • Example:

      • Red flowers are dominant to white flowers

      • R - Red

      • r - white

      • Punnett Square:

        R

        r

        R

        RR

        Rr

        r

        Rr

        rr

      • Genotypes: RR, Rr, rr

      • Phenotypes: Red, White

  43. What is a pedigree, what does it look like?

    • Family history that shows how a trait is inherited.

  44. What are some important aspects to evolution?

    • The environment determines which traits are favorable, and it's the process by which populations change over time.

  45. What evidence supports that evolution occurred?

    • Time (generation) and genetic variation.

  46. Define what a species is and how new species are formed.

    • Species: A group of organisms.- New species are formed through geographic isolation, reproductive isolation, and behavioral isolation.

  47. What are some facts about fossils and fossil records?

    • Fossils: Preserved remains of organisms.- Fossil records prove life on Earth.

  48. What is the difference between a hypothesis and theory?

    • Hypothesis: A possible explanation.

    • Theory: Tested and proven.

  49. Interconnected food chains in an ecosystem make up a?

    • Food web.

  50. Know what food webs, food chains, and ecological pyramids are and how they work.

  51. Understand how energy is transferred between trophic levels.

    • Energy is transferred when organisms eat each other.

  52. What is ecology?

    • The study of living things and their environment.

  53. Define the water cycle and important facts.

    • The transportation of water (evaporation, condensation, etc.).

  54. Define the carbon cycle and important facts.

    • How carbon atoms move.

  55. Define the nitrogen cycle and important facts.

    • How nitrogen moves through organisms and the environment.

  56. What is the difference between biotic and abiotic factors?

    • Biotic: Plants, animals, microorganisms.

    • Abiotic: Environment, chemical components.

  57. Producers vs. consumers.

    • Producers: Make energy.

    • Consumers: Eat to get energy.