Research Psych, Ch. 10 Ethics

Unit 10: Ethics

  • Importance of Ethics: Ethics plays a critical role in various fields, particularly in science, where it serves as a foundational guide for moral judgments and practices.

Definition of Ethics

  • Ethics: A systematic framework of moral principles and standards that govern individual behavior and decision-making.

  • Morals:
      - Definition: A set of principles or beliefs regarding what is right or wrong, which may vary between individuals and cultures.
      - Examples:
        - Honesty vs. deceit
        - Respect vs. disrespect

Science and Ethics

  • Concern for Ethics in Science:
      - Science maintains a neutral stance regarding value judgments; it can prescribe methods and report findings but does not dictate moral implications.
      - Ethical standards are vital for determining right and wrong conduct regarding scientific practices.
      - Ignoring ethical considerations may lead to severe and unacceptable scientific outcomes.

Dark Side of Science

  • Ethical Dilemmas with Information:
      - A significant question arises regarding the ethical use of information gathered from unethical sources.
      - Historical incidents illustrate that information obtained through unethical means can still be lifesaving.
      - The ethical responsibility lies in balancing knowledge acquisition against moral and ethical considerations.

Ethical Decision-Making in Studies

  • Ethic’s Decision Plane Model: A matrix designed for evaluating the ethical implications of studies based on their benefits and impacts:
      - Quadrants:
        - A: High Benefit, Low Cost
        - B: High Benefit, High Cost
        - C: Low Benefit, High Cost
        - D: Low Benefit, Low Cost
      - While all studies generate knowledge, quadrants A & D are straightforward, whereas B & C present complex ethical dilemmas.
      - Examples of Low-Benefit Studies:
        - [Details to be provided]
      - Examples of High-Benefit Studies:
        - [Details to be provided]

The Grey Zone of Ethics

  • Ethical concerns regarding the use of animals in research include:
      - Examples of Animal Research:
        - Studies involving dogs for eye cancer treatment.
        - Studies using rabbits to assess cosmetic safety.
        - Cancer drug trials with various treatment groups: standard medicine, experimental medicine, and placebo.

Harm in Psychological Studies

  • Psychological studies have the potential to inflict harm on subjects, underscoring the necessity of ethical considerations in research.

Historical Case Study: Little Albert

  • Subject of Study: Little Albert.

  • Experiment Conducted by: John B. Watson & Rosaline Rayner (1920).

  • Description of the Experiment:
      - The experiment aimed to demonstrate the principles of classical conditioning, a concept which suggests that the body can learn to associate a neutral stimulus with an emotional response.
      - Little Albert, an infant around 9 months old at the time, was exposed to a variety of stimuli, including a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, and other objects. Initially, he showed no fear of these items   - To condition Albert to fear the white rat, the researchers would present the rat to him while simultaneously striking a metal bar with a hammer, creating a loud, frightening noise. This process was repeated multiple times, associating the rat with the fear response triggered by the noise.   - Eventually, Little Albert began to exhibit fear not only towards the white rat but also to other similar stimuli, including a fur coat and other furry animals, demonstrating generalization of his conditioned fear.

  • Outcome of the Study:
      - The results of the experiment indicated that emotional responses (fear, in this case) could be conditioned in humans, aligning with the principles of behaviorism.   - However, ethical concerns arise as the study was conducted without the informed consent of the child’s mother, and Little Albert was not desensitized after the experiment ended, leaving him with an irrational fear of various stimuli.   - Additionally, the study helped lay the groundwork for future research on behaviorism and conditioning principles, though it has also faced significant ethical scrutiny over how it was conducted and the long-term effects on Little Albert.

Atrocities and Ethical Codes

  • World War II Atrocities and the establishment of the Nuremberg Code:
      - Trials conducted in 1947 against Nazi officials led to the creation of ethical standards for human experimentation.

The Nuremberg Code (1949)

  • Guidelines Established:
      1. Voluntary consent is essential for participants.
      2. Experiments must provide benefits to society.
      3. Animal testing should occur prior to human trials.
      4. Participants must be fully informed about the study and its risks.
      5. Unnecessary suffering and injury should be avoided.
      6. Researchers should minimize risks wherever possible.
      7. The risks should not outweigh humanitarian values.
      8. Conditions must be adequate for the study.
      9. Only qualified personnel should carry out the experiments.
      10. Experimenters should have the authority to terminate the experiment at any time.
      11. Participants may withdraw from the study at any moment without penalty.

Historical Case Study: Tuskegee Syphilis Study

  • Study Duration: 1932-1972.

  • Description: An investigation focused on the effects of untreated syphilis.

  • Ethical Issues:
      - Participants were not provided with informed consent.
      - Patients were not informed of penicillin’s discovery as a cure around 1943.
      - Despite the establishment of the Nuremberg Code, the study continued unethically.

    • Participants were predominantly African American men from rural Alabama, which raises significant concerns about exploitation and racial injustice.

    • The study resulted in severe health complications for the participants, including long-term neurological damage and death, without any therapeutic interventions being offered.

New York Times Article

  • Headline: "Syphilis Victims in U.S. Study Went Untreated for 40 Years."

  • Summary of the Situation:
      - 600 black men were persuaded to participate in the study without treatment over four decades.
      - The aim was to understand the effects of the disease through autopsy results.
      - Officials expressed retrospective shock and regret about the study's ethics.

Tuskegee Apology

  • Formal Apology Issued:
      - In 1997, President Clinton offered an apology to survivors, 25 years after the conclusion of the study.

The Belmont Report (1979)

  • Purpose: To provide a framework for ethical guidelines after the lessons learned from the Tuskegee and Nuremberg studies.

  • Core Principles:
      1. Respect for Persons
      2. Beneficence
      3. Justice

Principle 1: Respect for Persons

  • Informed Consent:
      - Participants must comprehend the study activities before consenting.

  • Coercion and Undue Influence:
      - Definitions:
        - Coercion: Forcing individuals against their will via threats.
        - Undue Influence: Presenting substantial rewards to sway an individual's decision.

Principle 1 Continued

  • Special Protection:
      - Extra safeguards are necessary for individuals with diminished autonomy, including children, disabled individuals, and prisoners.

Principle 2: Beneficence

  • Protection from Harm:
      - Researchers should minimize potential harm to participants.

  • Ensuring Well-Being:
      - Participants should complete studies without harm or in the same condition as when they entered.

Principle 3: Justice

  • Equitable Treatment:
      - Fair distribution of benefits and burdens associated with research participation.

  • Examples of Unjust Treatment:
      - Targeting poor populations specifically for experimental studies.

Ethical Violations in the Tuskegee Study

  • Identified Violations:
      - Lack of informed consent.
      - Presence of coercion and undue influence.
      - Use of painful methods causing unnecessary suffering.
      - Withholding effective treatments.
      - Unfair focus on particular demographics (poor black men).

Milgram’s Experiment: Distress and Deception

  • Purpose: Investigating the tension between individual moral standards and authority's demands. Conducted between August 1961 and May 1962.

Roles in the Milgram Study

  • Participant: Individual believing they are engaging in a learning study involving punishment.

  • Authority: Experimenter overseeing the participant's actions.

  • Actor: Pretender posing as the "learner."

Experiment Setup

  • Initial predictions suggested that only 4% of participants would administer lethal shocks.

Results of the Milgram Experiment

  • Outcome: Approximately 65% of participants delivered what they believed were lethal shocks.

  • Interpretations: This indicates a significant tendency among humans to obey authority figures, even in morally challenging situations.

Fallout and Implications of Milgram’s Study

  • The study concludes that extreme psychological distress can manifest without inflicting physical harm.

  • The ethical implications of utilizing deception in research are profound and warrant careful consideration in future studies.

APA Reaction to Milgram

  • Ethical Shift: In response to Milgram’s findings, the American Psychological Association revised its ethical guidelines, encompassing five primary principles:
      - Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
      - Fidelity and Responsibility
      - Integrity
      - Justice
      - Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity

APA General Principles

  • The principles align with those from the Belmont Report while emphasizing no harm, fairness, dignity, and respect for individuals involved.

Stanford Prison Experiment

  • Conducted by Zimbardo, who acted as Superintendent.

  • Participants were assigned roles of Guards and Prisoners without comprehensive disclosure of potential effects.

Experiment Duration and Issues

  • The intended duration was two weeks, but the study concluded after six days due to ethical violations, with Guards exhibiting bullying behavior that Zimbardo allowed to occur. The psychological impact on the participants was profound, leading to emotional distress among the Prisoners and a concerning display of authority among the Guards.

Fallout of the Stanford Experiment

  • The implications reveal how assigned roles can alter behavior, raising significant ethical questions regarding researcher involvement. This has prompted a reevaluation of ethical standards in psychological research, emphasizing the need for stringent oversight and clear boundaries to protect participants from harm.

APA Principles for Conducting Research with Humans

  • Ethical Guidelines Include:
      - No harm
      - Ensured confidentiality
      - Required institutional oversight and approval
      - Competent research personnel.

  • Monitoring participant well-being is essential.

APA Principles around Deception

  • Types of Deception:
      - Passive (Omission): Withholding certain information from participants.
      - Active (Commission): Deliberately providing false information to participants.

Informed Consent in Research

  • Securing informed consent is critical, especially from vulnerable populations, ensuring clarity regarding participant rights and comprehensive understanding throughout the study process.

Clinical Equipoise

  • Definition: The ethical obligation to provide the best possible treatment to participants while avoiding placebo controls, raising concerns about treatment efficacy.

Vulnerable Populations in Research

  • Researchers must consider factors that may affect the decision-making capacities of participants, such as age, health status, and mental capabilities.

Debriefing Process

  • The final stage of research that involves clarifying the study’s purpose and nature to participants, addressing any potential negative effects.

Debriefing Guidelines

  • Should help participants return to their initial emotional state while affirming confidentiality and any involved deception truthfully.

Ethics in Animal Research

  • Pros of Animal Research:
      - Enables examination of issues that would be unethical to test on humans.
      - Animals tend to grow faster, expediting developmental studies.

Cons of Animal Research and Ethical Considerations

  • Challenges include the absence of consent for animal subjects.

  • Ethical concerns arise concerning the justifications for any suffering inflicted on animals.

The Three R’s in Animal Welfare

  • Reduction: Seeking to minimize the number of animals used in experiments.

  • Replacement: Looking to substitute animals with alternative methods whenever feasible.

  • Refinement: Adjusting practices to enhance animal welfare and reduce suffering.

Identifying Ethical Standards in Studies

  • Discussion is required to assess where various studies (e.g., Zimbardo's, Milgram's, Tuskegee, etc.) rank on an ethics scale when weighing costs against benefits; data collection is needed.

Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Animal Care Committees

  • IRB: Reviews research proposals involving human subjects.
      - Composed of diverse professionals from various academic backgrounds.
      - Ensures adherence to established ethical standards.

  • IACUC: Responsible for oversight of animal research, ensuring veterinary oversight during studies.

Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research by APA

  • Principles that require justifying research, ensuring proper animal care, utilizing qualified personnel, and implementing humane practices.

Concluding Takeaway on Ethics

  • Ethical frameworks are essential within research settings to avert historical mistakes and promote principles of justice, beneficence, and respect for all participants, which ultimately aspire to elevate societal practices and outcomes.