Problem Solving and Decision Making Notes

Problem solving mirrors the scientific method, involving a structured process.
Framing the Problem: Creating a mental image or schematic of the issue.
Generating Potential Solutions: Deriving solutions, often influenced by a mental set.
Testing Solutions: Evaluating the results and considering alternative, potentially more effective solutions.
Mental Set: The tendency to approach similar problems in the same way.
Problem-solving can be hindered by inappropriate mental sets and functional fixedness.

Dunker's Candle Problem: Demonstrates functional fixedness.
- Given a box of matches, tacks, and a candle, the task is to mount the candle on the wall without wax dripping.
- The solution involves recognizing the matchbox as a potential candle holder, tacking it to the wall, and placing the candle inside.
Definition: The inability to consider using an object in a non-traditional manner.

Trial and Error: Testing various solutions until one works; effective when there are few possible solutions.
Algorithms: A set of step-by-step procedures that provides the correct answer to a particular problem.
Deductive Reasoning: Reasoning from general principles to a specific conclusion.
Inductive Reasoning: Reasoning from specific observations to a general conclusion.

Disconfirmation Principle: Discarding a solution when testing demonstrates it doesn't work.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to focus on information confirming one's beliefs and reject conflicting information.
Overconfidence: The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs.
Hindsight Bias: Overestimating the ability to predict an outcome after it has already occurred.
Belief Perseverance: The inability to reject a belief despite clear contradictory evidence.
These biases can significantly impede the analysis of available evidence.

Definition: Acting on perceptions not necessarily supported by available evidence.
Often developed through experience.
Recognition-Primed Decision Model: Describes intuition as the brain sorting through information to match patterns based on extensive experience.

Emotion is a subjective experience that influences thinking and decision-making.
Example: Anger may lead to riskier decisions.
Emotions expected from a decision also play a role (e.g., buying a car to feel more powerful).

A highly studied area in psychology, focusing on the definition and determinants of intelligence.

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Defines eight types of intelligence:
- Linguistic
- Logical-mathematical
- Musical
- Visual-spatial
- Bodily-kinesthetic
- Interpersonal
- Intrapersonal
- Naturalist
Western culture values linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities (tested on IQ tests).
Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence greatly impact quality of life.
- Interpersonal Intelligence: The ability to understand and navigate the moods and motivations of others.
- Intrapersonal Intelligence: Being mindful of one's own emotions, strengths, and weaknesses.
Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence: Focuses on how people use intelligence:
- Analytical Intelligence: Evaluating and reasoning.
- Creative Intelligence: Solving problems using novel methods.
- Practical Intelligence: Dealing with everyday problems.

Addresses emotional awareness with four components:
- The ability to express and perceive emotions in oneself and others.
- The ability to comprehend and analyze our emotions.
- The ability to regulate our emotions.
- Awareness of how emotions shape our thoughts and decisions.
Empathy is an example, requiring understanding of one's own emotions to recognize them in others.

Quantified through tests; a founding concept is Spearman's G factor.
Spearman's G Factor (General Intelligence Factor): Performance on cognitive tasks is positively correlated, indicating an underlying factor.
Measured with standardized tests, generating an intelligence quotient (IQ).
IQ Tests: Pioneered by Alfred Binet, later adapted into the Stanford-Binet IQ test.
Original formula for calculating IQ:
- $IQ = (\frac{Mental Age}{Chronological Age}) * 100$
- Example: A four-year-old with the abilities of a six-year-old has an IQ of 150.
Galton argued for intelligence as a hereditary trait (Hereditary Genius).
Variations in intellectual ability are due to:
- Genes
- Environment
- Educational experiences
Intellectual ability tends to run in families due to genetics and environment.
Environmental Factors: Parental expectations, socioeconomic status, and nutrition correlate with intelligence.
Educational System: Significant role in intelligence development; children in school show greater IQ increases.
Early intervention improves IQ, especially for children in low-enrichment environments.
Specialized educational environments benefit both gifted students and those with cognitive disabilities.
- For students with cognitive disabilities, the least restrictive environment is encouraged, promoting participation in mainstream classrooms with individualized help.