What is Culture? A Compilation of Quotations Compiled by: Helen Spencer-Oatey
Core Concepts
What is Culture? A Compilation of Quotations
Compiled by: Helen Spencer-Oatey
Reference for this compilation: Spencer-Oatey, H. (2012) What is culture? A compilation of quotations. GlobalPAD Core Concepts. Available at GlobalPAD Open House http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/al/globalpad/interculturalskills/
Note: Acknowledge original sources if citing quotations within this document.
Definitions of Culture
Culture is notoriously difficult to define.
In 1952, anthropologists Kroeber and Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 different definitions of culture.
Apte (1994: 2001) summarized the problem by stating: ‘Despite a century of efforts to define culture adequately, there was in the early 1990s no agreement among anthropologists regarding its nature.’
Historical perspectives on culture's interpretation, as noted by Avruch:
Three Broad Usages of Culture:
Matthew Arnold (1867): Culture as special intellectual or artistic endeavors (high culture vs. popular culture).
Only a small portion of any social group “has” culture.
Edward Tylor (1870): Culture as a quality possessed by all people across social groups, arranged on a developmental continuum from “savagery” to “civilization.”
Tylor’s Definition: "That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."
Franz Boas (Twentieth Century): Reaction against Tylor’s evolutionism, emphasizing the uniqueness of varied cultures with no value judgments on cultural differences.
Rejects the superiority notions of “high culture” vs. “low culture”.
Implications of Cultural Definitions:
Different usages of culture often carry political or ideological agendas.
Reflection on Definitions of Culture
Key definitions and their focal points:
Tylor: Knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom acquired in society.
Kroeber & Kluckhohn (1952): Patterns for behaviors, acquired through symbols, with core traditional ideas.
T.Schwartz (1992): Derivatives of experience organized and transmitted through generations.
Hofstede (1994): Collective programming of the mind distinguished by group membership.
Matsumoto (1996): Set of shared attitudes and behaviors communicated through generations.
Spencer-Oatey (2008): Basic assumptions and values shared by groups influencing individual behavior.
Key Characteristics of Culture
1. Manifests at Different Layers of Depth:
Observable Artifacts: Physical manifestations such as dress codes, office layout, etc.
Easy to observe but hard to interpret meaning.
Values: Govern behavior; inferred through interviews and document analysis.
Underlying Assumptions: Often unconscious, these assumptions determine perception, thought, and feeling within groups.
Example: Unquestioned profit motivation in businesses, educational purposes in schools, etc.
2. Affects Behavior and Interpretations:
Cultural differences can lead to misinterpretation of actions or gestures.
Examples:
Navajo Classroom Incident: A teacher expected verbal communication, misinterpreted Navajo silence as impoliteness, while it was a culturally appropriate response for the father.
Coconut-Skating in the Philippines: Misunderstanding of a cultural practice, illustrating the need for awareness of local customs.
3. Differentiated from Universal Human Nature and Individual Personality:
Culture is learned and shaped by social environments, distinct from genetic inheritance.
Human Nature: Universal traits shared among all humans;
e.g., ability to express emotions like joy or sadness.
Individual Personality: Unique traits shaped by both innate and cultural influences.
4. Influences Biological Processes:
Cultural context can affect even biological responses such as dietary habits.
Example: Reaction to consuming culturally taboo foods (e.g., rattlesnake meat) demonstrating cultural influence on biological processes.
5. Associated with Social Groups:
Culture must be shared; individual actions not indicative of culture.
Individuals belong to various cultural groups based on nationality, ethnicity, gender, etc.
6. Individual & Social Construct:
Culture exists both psychologically within individuals and socially within groups; divided into:
Macroconcepts: Shared values/norms affecting groups.
Individual Constructs: Personal interpretation of cultural norms, influencing levels of engagement.
7. Fuzzy Boundaries:
Cultural traits are not uniformly shared
to the degree that absolute distinction between cultures is difficult.
8. Universal and Distinctive Elements:
Culture contains both etic (universal elements) and emic (unique cultural elements).
Example: Social distance perception rooted in universal experiences, but expressed through culturally-specific factors.
9. Learned Through Socialization:
Culture is transmitted through interactions, shaping responses to stimuli—a child’s upbringing varies culturally in response expectations (e.g., making decisions).
10. Subject to Gradual Change:
Cultures are dynamic; influenced by innovation (discovery and invention) and cultural borrowing (diffusion).
Example: Adaptation of foreign foods/preferences within local cultures.
11. Interrelated Components:
Different parts of culture (customs, beliefs, norms) are interconnected.
12. Descriptive, Not Evaluative:
Culture should not be judged as better or worse.
Inadequate Conceptions of Culture
Six inadequate ideas that hinder understanding:
Homogenous Culture: Misconception of uniformity within a culture.
Culture as a Thing: Leads to neglect of individual agency in cultural practices.
Uniform Distribution: Overlooks variation within cultural groups.
One Culture per Person: Fails to recognize multicultural identities.
Culture as Custom: Reduces culture to static habits and etiquette.
Timelessness of Culture: Misrepresents cultures as stagnant and unchanging.
Levels of Analysis and Fallacies to Avoid
Importance of distinguishing between culture-level characterizations and individual-level behaviors in research.
Ecological Fallacy: Mistaking general cultural patterns as individual behaviors can lead to incorrect conclusions about causality.
Culture and Related Terms
Culture vs. Nation: Distinction between the political concept of a nation and the social concept of culture; examples include multi-culture within nations like the United States.
Culture and Race: Critical examination of cultural vs. racial identity; emphasizes complex interplay and distinct cultural identities.
Culture and Ethnicity: Exploring how ethnicity can shape cultural identity; varies greatly depending on individual experiences and group affiliations.
Culture, Subculture, Coculture: Understanding the implications of these terms, emphasizing equality among cultural groups rather than hierarchy.
Culture and Identity: Differentiating between cultural identity and personal identity to navigate sociopolitical dynamics.
Conclusion
Cultural Understanding and Business Practice: Recognizing cultural nuances is essential for effective international business practices and intercultural communication.