Personality: Theory and Measurement
CHAPTER 10: Personality: Theory and Measurement
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
10-1 Describe the psychoanalytical perspective and how it contributed to the study of personality.
10-2 Explain the trait perspective and the "Big Five" trait model.
10-3 Identify the contributions of learning theory to understanding personality.
10-4 Describe the humanistic–existential perspective on personality.
10-5 Describe the sociocultural perspective on personality.
10-6 Describe the different kinds of tests psychologists use to measure personality.
INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY
Many theorists and psychologists have explored the complex nature of personality, likening its understanding to the fable of The Blind Men and the Elephant:
Each blind man touching a different part of an elephant forms a unique, limited conclusion, illustrating that our views on personality can also be limited and varied.
Psychologists define personality as:
Reasonably stable patterns of emotions, motives, and behavior that distinguish one person from another.
10-1 THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
Overview
Derived from Sigmund Freud's theories, psychodynamic theories emphasize that personality is characterized by internal conflict.
Conflicts arise from drives (sex, aggression) opposing social norms and moral codes.
Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
Key Concepts
Freud proposed that personality development proceeds through five stages of psychosexual development:
Oral Stage (0-1 year): Focus on oral gratification. Conflicts can lead to dependency or aggression.
Anal Stage (1-3 years): Focus on control over elimination. Conflicts result in anal-retentive (orderly) or anal-expulsive (messy) traits.
Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Involves the Oedipus complex (boys) and Electra complex (girls). Conflicts lead to identification with the same-sex parent.
Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual feelings remain repressed, focus on social interactions and skill development.
Genital Stage (puberty on): Sexual gratification sought through mature relationships.
Key Components of Freud’s Structure of Personality
The mind is likened to an iceberg:
Conscious: The small tip, representing thoughts we are aware of.
Preconscious: Ideas not currently in consciousness but can be accessed.
Unconscious: The vast mass below the surface housing drives, fears, and emotions not accessible to awareness, profoundly influencing behavior.
Psychic Structures
Freud identified three critical structures:
Id: Present at birth, it comprises biological drives and operates under the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
Ego: Develops in early childhood, it acts as a mediator operating on the reality principle, managing desires while considering societal rules. It employs defense mechanisms like repression.
Superego: Formed through internalized morals, it represents the ideal self and monitors the ego, generating feelings of pride or guilt.
10-1b NEO-FREUDIANS
Overview
Following Freud, several theorists adapted his ideas, focusing more on social and cultural influences:
Carl Jung emphasized the collective unconscious containing archetypes.
Alfred Adler believed in striving for superiority rather than sexual motivation; introduced the inferiority complex.
Karen Horney posited that social relationships are critical in personality development, challenging Freud's concept of penis envy.
Erik Erikson focused on psychosocial development, proposing an eight-stage model across the lifespan.
10-2 THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE
Overview
Trait theories focus on identifying and measuring stable characteristics (traits) that contribute to consistent behaviors.
Trait Definitions and Historical Background
Trait: A relatively stable aspect of personality inferred from behavior.
Early concepts date back to Hippocrates, who linked personality to bodily fluids (humors).
Eysenck's model categorized traits on dimensions of introversion–extraversion and emotional stability–instability (neuroticism).
The Big Five model includes:
Extraversion: Sociability and outgoing nature.
Agreeableness: Compassionate and cooperative nature.
Conscientiousness: Organization and dependability.
Neuroticism: Emotional instability and anxiety levels.
Openness to Experience: Creativity and willingness to engage in new experiences.
Biological Considerations
Genetic influences account for to heritability for many traits.
Neurotransmitter levels, particularly dopamine, may play a role in traits like extraversion.
10-3 LEARNING-THEORY PERSPECTIVES
Overview
Learning theorists emphasize that personality consists of behaviors learned through experience.
Behaviorism
Pioneered by John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors influenced by environmental stimuli.
Personality is shaped by reinforcement, rewards, and punishments.
Social–Cognitive Theory
Developed by Albert Bandura, this theory incorporates cognitive processes.
Individuals learn by observing others (modeling), interacting with their environment, and engaging in self-regulation. Key concept: self-efficacy expectations (belief in one’s abilities).
10-4 THE HUMANISTIC–EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVE
Overview
This perspective centers around individual experience, emphasizing self-awareness and personal growth.
Key Theorists and Concepts
Abraham Maslow: Introduced self-actualization and the hierarchy of needs, emphasizing the journey towards personal fulfillment.
Carl Rogers: Focused on the self-concept, proposing that unconditional positive regard (acceptance regardless of behavior) leads to enhanced self-esteem and personal development. Congruence between real self and ideal self is important.
Evaluation
The humanistic approach is optimistic but can be critiqued for its subjective nature and lack of detailed predictions.
10-5 THE SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
Overview
This perspective considers how ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status impact personality.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
Individualistic cultures prioritize personal goals and traits.
Collectivist cultures emphasize group affiliations and relationships.
Acculturation
The process of adapting to a new culture and its impact on self-esteem and personal identity.
10-6 MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
Personality Assessment Types
Objective Tests: Standardized questionnaires with fixed answers used to measure personality traits (e.g., MMPI, Big Five inventories).
Reliability: Consistency of results over time.
Validity: Accuracy in measuring what the test purports to measure.
Projective Tests: Tests where individuals respond to ambiguous stimuli, allowing projection of their personality (e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test, TAT).
Key Points and Limitations
Objective tests offer concrete measures but can be subject to response biases. Projective tests provide deeper insights but often face criticism regarding their reliability and validity.