unit one

behavior geneticists: explore genetic and environmental roots of human differences

adaptation: process of which a species becomes fitted to the environment

mutation: random error in gene replication that leads to a change

heredity: nature and genetics

environment: nurture, everything non genetic

chromosomes: threadlike structures made of DNA that contain genes

DNA: complex molecule which contains genetic info → make up chromosomes

nervous system: network of nerves and cells that transmit signals between different body parts

endocrine system: produces hormones that regulate bodily functions like growth, metabolism, and mood

brain: processes info, controls actions, thoughts, and regulates body functions

peripheral nervous system: nerves outside the brain and psinal cord that connect the CNS to the body

central nervous system: brain and spinal cord

autonomic nervous system: controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestions, and breathing

somatic nervous system: controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles

spinal cord: nerve bundle that transmits signals between the brain and body

enteric nervous system: directly controls gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and gallbladder

efferent neurons: motor neurons

afferent neurons: sensory neurons

interneurons:

reflexes: automatic, rapid responses to stimuli, bypassing conscious brain activity

sympathetic nervous system: fight/flight response, automatically accelerates heart rate, dilates pupils, slows down digestion

parasympathetic nervous system: rest and digest, automatically slows body down

excitabory neurotransmitters: rev up neurons

inhibitory neurotransmitters: chill neurons out

soma/cell body: contains nucleus and DNA

dendrites: receives signals from other neuron

axon: carry signals from one end to another

axon terminals/terminal buttons: send signals to next neuron

schwann cells: produce myelin for myelin sheath

nodes of ranvier: spaces between schwann cells

glial cells: support cells for nervous system, providing extra protection and nourishment for neurons

action potential: generating electric impulses

resting potential: when not firing, neuron has a slightly negative charge

threshold: minimum stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse

all or nothing law/response: neuron’s reaction of firing or not firing is not determined by strength of stimulation, as long as threshold is met

refractory period: brief pause between firings

acetylcholine: enables muscle action, learning, and memory

dopamine: influences voluntary movement, learning, attention, and emotion

serotonin: affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

norepinephrine: helps control alertness and arousal

GABA: inhibitory neurotransmitter, natural transquilizer involved in calming

glutamate: excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory

endorphins: influence perception of pain and pleasure

substance P: pain perception and signaling

adrenaline: prepares body for emergency, fight/flight response

oxytocin: facilitates lactation and improve relationships

cortisol: maintains homeostasis (stress hormone)

psychoactive drugs: chemical substances that alter perceptions and moods

substance use disorder: characterized by continued substance craving and use

neurotransmitters: chemical messengers of nervous system

agonists: increase/mimic neurotransmitter action

antagonists: block receptor cells

reuptake inhibitors: block reuptake process, leaving the drug/neurotransmitter in synaptic gap longer

hallucinogen: causes false sensory hallucinations, impairs memory, feelings of relaxation/euphoia

depressants: increase relaxation and pain relief, decreased mood and arousal

stimulants: increase energy, decrease appetite, brief feelings of euphoria

addiction: complex condition characterized by compulsive drug use or behaviors despite harmful consequences

tolerance: dimishished psychoactive effects after repeated use

withdrawal: painful symptoms of body readjusting to absence of drug

biological psychologists: focus on how body and brain enable emotions, memory, and sensory experiences

neuroplasticity: brain’s ability to change, build, and reorganize after damage

neurogenesis: producing new neurons

electroencephalogram (EEG): electrodes placed on scalp measure electrical activity in neurons

magnetoencephalography (MEG): head oil records magnetic fields from the brains natural electrical currents

computed tomography (CT): x-rays of the head generate images that may locate brain damage

positron emission tomography (PET): tracks where radioactive glucose goes during certain task

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): chamber uses magnetic fields to provide map of brain structure

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans

hindbrain: consists of structures involved in survival

midbrain: movement, sensation, allows communication between hindbrain and forebrain

forebrain: largest/most complex. involved in memory, emotion, reasoning, personality, communication, complex thought → cognitive

reticular formation: nerve network, plays an important part in controlling arousal

medulla: base of brainstem that controls breathing and heartrate

pons: connects hindbrain, midbrain, and forbrain involved in respiration and REM sleep, communication/coordination center

thalamus: directs messages and transmits replies to sensory receiving areas and cerebellum/medulla

cerebellum: movement/balance, sensory input, time judgment, enables nonverbal learning/memory

limbic system: neural system located below cerebral hemisphere, associated /w emotions and drives

amygdala: survival emotions of fear/aggression

hippocampus: processing/storing explicit memories

hypothalamus: eating, drinking, body temp, endocrine, system, emotion/reward

corpus callosum: connects two hemispheres, allows for communication between the two

pituitary: controller by hypothalamus, releases hormones (in control of endocrine glands)

pineal gland: produces melatonin and regulates sleep cycle

cerebral cortex: intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering cerebral hemispheres

parietal lobe: receives sensory input for touch sensations, located the the top of the head

frontal lobe: behind forehead, involved in executive functions

motor cortex: controls muscle movement

broca’s area: controls muscles that produce speech

broca’s aphasia: damage causes problems with fluency

temporal lobe: located above ears, includes auditory areas, assists with memory

wenicke’s area: language comprehension

auditory cortex: organization and processing of auditory information

occipital lobes: located in the back of head above cerebellum, receives info from visual fields of opposite eyes for processing

visual cortex: organizations and processing of visual information

association areas: areas of cerebral cortex involved in higher mental functions (learning, remembering, thinking, speaking), help produce meaningful experience of the world

consciousness: subjective awareness of ourselves and the environment

preconscious: thoughts that aren’t currently in awareness

unconscious: thoughts and feelings outside of awareness

selective attention: focusing on conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

cocktail party effect: hearing your name in a crowded room

dual processing: minds process info on two tracks

parallel processing: enables us to take care of routine business

sequential processing: provides focus

blindsight: condition where someone has damage to their brain and do not respond to visual stimuli but still experience it

hypnosis: relaxed, suggestive state of altered consciousness where focus is narrows → people become more open to suggestion

meditation: focused states where mind may become more aware or relaxed, often used for stress reduction

circadian rhythm: biological clock that regulates mood, temp

sleep: biological process that involved moment of unconsciousness while brain/body are still active

homeostatic sleep drive: body’s way of tracking how long you’ve been awake, the longer you’re awake → stronger urge

adenosine accumulation: longer awake → increasing level of adenosine leads to sleepiness

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): pair of cell clusters in hypothalamus that control circadian rhythm

NREM1: light sleep, easily awoken (alpha waves)

NREM-2: fully asleep (theta waves /w sleep spindles)

sleep spindles: random short burst of activity

NREM-3: deep sleep (delta waves)

REM: body relaxed as if paralyzed, brain as active as if it was awake. paradoxical sleep (beta waves)

REM rebound: if deprived of REM sleep, will spend more time in REM next time

insomnia: problems staying/falling asleep

narcolepsy: uncontrollable sleep attacks, may lapse into REM

sleep apnea: temporary cessations of breathing during sleep

REM sleep behavior disorder: not immobilized, “acting out” a dream physically

night terrors: high arousal/appearance of being terrified, occurs during NREM-3

somnambulism: sleep walking