A Complete Guide to 19th Century Mexican History: Santa Anna, Texas Independence, and the Second Empire

Antonio López de Santa Anna: Leadership and Legacy

• Origins and Early Politics:

  • Antonio López de Santa Anna was originally from Xalapa, Veracruz.
  • He initially supported Agustín de Iturbide but eventually broke ties with him because Santa Anna opposed Iturbide’s Empire and favored the establishment of a republic.

• Tenure and Relation to Power:

  • Santa Anna held the office of the presidency of Mexico a total of $11$ times.
  • His relationship with power was characterized by extreme ambition. He repeatedly returned to high office, frequently ascending through the use of coups.

• Military Conflict and Physical Loss:

  • During the Pastry War in $1838$, Santa Anna was hit by French cannon fire, resulting in the loss of his leg.

• Dictatorship and Decline:

  • As a dictator, he was bestowed with the formal title of Su Alteza Serenísima.
  • His final period of rule was ended by the Plan of Ayutla, a political and military scheme designed to overthrow him.
  • At the end of his life, Santa Anna died in a state of poverty, was politically forgotten, and was nearly blind.

The Texas Revolution and Independence

• Context of Texas:

  • Before being incorporated into the United States, Texas belonged to the nation of Mexico, specifically functioning as part of the state of Coahuila y Texas.

• Immigration Policies and Settlement:

  • The Mexican government opened the territory to immigration from the United States to colonize, populate, and protect the northern frontier.
  • Moses Austin was the first U.S. settler to receive a land grant from the Mexican government.
  • Conditions for U.S. Settlers: Immigrants were required to meet four specific criteria:
    • Become Mexican citizens.
    • Obey all Mexican laws.
    • Convert to Catholicism.
    • Learn the Spanish language.

• The Issue of Slavery:

  • Slavery was vital for American settlers in Texas because their economy depended on enslaved labor to operate their large cotton plantations.

• The Rebellion and War for Independence:

  • Causes: Settlers rebelled due to their opposition to Mexican laws—most notably the ban on slavery—and Santa Anna’s centralist policies.
  • The Battle of the Alamo: This conflict resulted in a victory for Mexican forces, who defeated the Texan defenders.
  • The Battle of San Jacinto: Texan forces achieved a decisive victory, defeating the Mexican army and capturing Santa Anna himself.
  • Defeat of Santa Anna: He was defeated by Sam Houston.

• Treaties and Independent Texas:

  • The Velasco Treaties ($1836$): Signed following Santa Anna's capture. These treaties recognized the independence of Texas and established the Rio Grande as the border.
  • Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaties (Regarding Texas): These also recognized Texas' independence and fixed the Río Bravo (Rio Grande) as the border.
  • Post-Independence Status: Texas remained an independent nation for $9 \text{ years}$ ($1836$-$1845$). It did not immediately join the U.S. due to intense domestic debates over slavery and the fear of inciting a war with Mexico.

The Mexican-American War ($1846$-$1848$)

• Demographic and Political Context:

  • Population Disparity: In the $1840$s, the United States had a population of approximately $20 \text{ million}$ people, whereas Mexico had approximately $7 \text{ million}$.
  • Additional Internal Threats: Beyond the looming war, Mexico suffered from high political instability, severe economic problems, and internal rebellions.
  • General Mariano Paredes: He led a coup and assumed the presidency of Mexico just as the war commenced.

• Outbreak of War:

  • Cause: A border dispute regarding the territory between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande.
  • President Polk's Declaration: In $1846$, President James K. Polk declared war with the famous justification: "American blood has been shed on American soil."

• Military Campaigns and Major Battles:

  • Zachary Taylor: The American general who led the attack through Northern Mexico.
  • Winfield Scott: The American general who led the invasion through the Gulf of Mexico.
  • Key Battles in Mexico City: Padierna, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec.
  • The Niños Héroes: These young defenders fought during the Battle of Chapultepec.

• The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo:

  • This was the final treaty between Mexico and the U.S. resulting from the war. Under its terms, Mexico lost half of its total territory.

The Second Mexican Empire: Maximilian of Habsburg

• Origins and Family:

  • Maximilian was from Austria and was the brother of Franz Joseph I.
  • Charlotte (Carlota), his wife, was from Belgium.
  • Imperial Residences: In Europe, Maximilian served as the governor of the Italian province of Lombardy-Venetia. He built the Miramare Castle by the sea in Italy and his family’s palace in Vienna was the Hofburg Palace. In Mexico City, his residence was Chapultepec Castle.

• Ascension to the Mexican Throne:

  • Maximilian was sent to Mexico by Napoleon III of France.
  • His decision to accept the crown was based on "decisive evidence" of support from the Mexican people, as presented by the Assembly of Notables.
  • Upon accepting the crown, Maximilian was required to renounce his rights to the Austrian throne.

• Conflict and Politics:

  • Main Enemy: His primary adversary was Benito Juárez, whose forces were supported by the United States with both money and ammunition.
  • The Reform Laws: Proposed by Juárez and his team, these laws demanded the separation of Church and State, the removal of military and ecclesiastical privileges, and the nationalization of church property.
  • Relationship with the Pope: Maximilian failed to reach a satisfactory agreement with the Pope because the Emperor insisted on maintaining several of the Reform Laws.

• Collapse of the Empire:

  • French Withdrawal: Napoleon III withdrew his troops due to high intervention costs and mounting pressure from the United States following the conclusion of the American Civil War.
  • Charlotte's Fate: During her journey to Europe to seek help for the Empire, she became mentally ill.
  • The Decision to Stay: Maximilian refused to return to Europe, feeling a sense of responsibility toward his supporters and the Mexican Empire.
  • Execution: Maximilian died in Querétaro at the Cerro de las Campanas.