Week 2 -- Chp 5 -- p. 78-83 -- Latin America in Colonial Times -- Matthew Restall, Kris Lane -- Second edition, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 2018 -- Cambridge University Press

Tlaxcala was never conquered by the Mexica (Aztecs) but remained vigilant against their aggression.
Inhabitants lived under constant fear of being subject to the Mexica's tributary system.
Resentment towards Aztec aggression eventually contributed to the Spanish invasion's success.

Besides Tlaxcala, other kingdoms like the Tarascan kingdom also resisted Mexica control.
Tarascan capital: Tzintzuntzan.
These states demonstrate that the Mexica Empire was not invincible despite its expansion.

The Aztecs’ dominance in highland Mexico grew through the efforts of five emperors following Itzcoatl.
Moctezuma Ilhuicamina (1440) succeeded his uncle Itzcoatl. Important successors included:
- Axayåcatl
- Tizoc
- Ahuitzotl
Ahuitzotl's coronation (1486) showcased the vast extent of Mexica power and influence, instilling terror in visiting rulers.

Moctezuma Xocoyotl consolidated Aztec power from 1502 until his murder in 1520 by Spanish forces.
His leadership included numerous victories but later was criticized for the empire's response to Spanish threats.
He became a symbol of ineptitude regarding the empire's collapse following the Spanish arrival in 1519.

In 1438, Cusi Yupanqui, later known as Pachacuti, became the first true Inca emperor after overthrowing his father.
Established a mythological history that justified Inca expansion as a civilizing mission over the Andean people.
Unlike the Aztecs, the Incas did not have knowledge of each other’s existence during their rise.

The Inca Empire covered approximately 2,600 miles, from Ecuador to Chile, much larger than the Aztec Empire at its peak.
Tawantinsuyu: The Inca name for their empire, meaning "Union of the Four Quarters".
While the Aztecs relied on market systems and regional traders, the Incas exercised centralized control over trade.

Mit'a system: Mandated labor in lieu of tribute gathered from subject populations.
This labor included agricultural work on state-owned lands and service in the Inca military.
The Inca road system (14,000 miles long) facilitated communication and transport across the empire, critical for governance and military operations.
Seasonal migration was common, promoting Inca administration across various territories.

Incas used quipu (knotted cords) as a primary method for recording information, contrary to the diverse writing systems of other Mesoamerican cultures.
The centralized trade system facilitated effective imperial governance, allowing for redistributive economics and suppressing free market activities.

Epidemics such as smallpox struck the Inca Empire around 1525, significantly impacting its population and governance before Spanish entry.
The death of Huayna Capac (possibly from smallpox) led to a succession crisis between two heirs, causing internal strife and weakening the Inca Empire.

The internal division and disease facilitated the conquest led by Francisco Pizarro in 1532.

In 1525, Hernando Cortés and his expedition encountered the Chontal Maya and Itzá Maya kingdoms offering hospitality.
Acalan and Noh Petén were capital cities with modest territorial claims.
Both kingdoms had populations around 30,000, showcasing sedentary life and cultural continuity despite being smaller compared to historic giants like Tikal.
The Maya were part of a thriving network of Mesoamerican civilization, retaining their complete writing system and cultural practices at the time of Spanish encounters.

The complexities of both the Inca and Aztec empires underscore diverse responses to external pressures and internal dynamics, shaping their legacies in the face of European conquest.