SOCL 302 Final
Some questions and vocab to guide your preparation:
· What is social science? What is the focus of Sociology?
o Social Science – the use of scientific methods to investigate individuals, societies, and social processes; the knowledge produced by these investigations.
o Focus of Sociology – the study of human society, social behavior, and the relationships between individuals and social structures.
· Clearly understand the difference between deductive, inductive and descriptive research
o Deductive Research – the type of research in which a specific expectation is deduced from a general premise and is then tested.
o Descriptive Research – research in which social phenomena are defined as described.
o Inductive Research – The type of research in which general conclusions are drawn from specific data.
· Qualitative vs Quantitative data collection
o Qualitative – Techniques used to search and code textual, aural, and pictorial data and to explore relationships among the resulting categories.
o Quantitative – statistical techniques used to describe and analyze variation in quantitative measures.
· Independent vs Dependent variables
o Independent Variable – a variable that is hypothesized to cause, or lead to, variation in another variable. (ex. Poverty rates).
o Dependent Variable – a variable that is hypothesized to vary depending on or under the influence of another variable (ex. The percentage of community residents who are homeless).
· Belmont report- respect for persons; beneficence, Justice
o Belmont Report – Report in 1979 of the National Commission for Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research stipulating three basic ethical principles for the protection of human subjects: respect of persons, beneficence, and justice.
o Respect of Persons – treating persons as autonomous agents and protecting those with diminished autonomy.
o Beneficence – minimizing possible harms and maximizing benefits.
o Justice – distributing benefits and risks of research fairly.
· Informed consent
o Can be more difficult than it appears.
o Consent must be given by persons who are competent to consent, have consent voluntarily, are fully informed about the research, and have comprehended what they have been told.
o “Full disclosure of everything that could possibly affect a given subject’s decision to participate is not possible, and therefore cannot be ethically required.” – Baumrind.
· Reliability and Validity
o Reliability – a measurement procedure yields consistent scores when the phenomenon being measured is not changing.
o Validity – the state that exists when statements or conclusions about empirical reality are correct.
· What is probability vs. Nonprobability sampling?
o Probability Sampling – Sampling methods that rely on a random, or chance, selection method so that the probability of selection of population elements is known.
o Nonprobability Sampling – Sampling methods in which the probability of selection of population elements is unknown.
· What is random selection/sampling and why is it so important?
o Random Sampling – a method of sampling that relies on random, or chance, selection method so that every element of the sampling frame has a known probability of being selected.
o Why is it important? – every element has the same chance of being selected, so that sample is more accurately represent the entire population.
· Know the threats to internal and external validity for experiments.
o Internal Validity – (AKA Sources of Invalidity) history, contamination, experimenter expectation, placebo effect, Hawthorne effect.
§ Selection Bias – when the subjects in your group are initially different
§ Mortality – even when random assignment works as planned, the groups can become different over time (AKA differential attrition or deselection).
§ Instrument Decay – instruments get worn out, caused different results to be produced for cases studied later in the research.
§ Testing – taking the pretest can itself influence posttest scores.
§ Maturation – changes in outcome scores during experiments that involve a lengthy treatment period may be cause by maturation.
§ Regression – subjects who are chosen for a study because they received very low scores on a test may show improvement in the posttest, on average, simply because some of the low scores were having a bad day.
o External Validity –
§ History – things that happen outside the experiment (ex. Newsworthy events that concern the focus of an experiment and major disasters to
· What are three things required to establish causality (plus two that help confirm/support the causal relationship)?
o 1) empirical association
o 2) temporary priority of independent variable
o 3) nonspuriousness
o 4) identifying causal mechanisms
o 5) specifying the context in which the effect occurs.
· As a social scientist, which word should I use and why: Correlation or Causation?
o Correlation – a statistical relationship or association between two variables. (ex. If variable A changes, variable B tends to change too – but this does not mean A causes B.)
o Causation – means that one variable directly produces a change in another. (establishing causation requires strong evidence, often through experimental design, longitudinal studies, or ruling out explanations).
o A social scientists would want to use the word “correlation” because it reflects that cautious, evidence-based approach of the field.
· Why would one choose a longitudinal study over a cross-sectional study design?
o Longitudinal – a study in which data are collected that can be ordered in time; also defined as research in which data are collected at two or more points in time.
o Cross-sectional – a study in which data are collected at only one point in time.
o A researcher would choose a longitudinal study over cross-sectional when you information over a set amount of time instead of just once.
· Why is it important to understand the levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)?
o Nominal level of measurement – identifies variables whose values have no mathematical interpretation; they vary in kind or quality but not in amount.
o Ordinal level of measurement – used to specify only the order of the cases in “greater than” and “less than” distinctions.
o Interval level of measurement – represent fixed measurement units but have no absolute zero point.
o Ratio level of measurement – represents fixed measuring units with an absolute zero point.
· What makes a good/bad survey question?
o Good Question:
§ Clarity, neutrality, specificity, relevance, and balanced question
o Bad Question:
§ Vagueness, leading language, double-barreled, overly complex, and unbalanced options.
· Why is response rate important in surveys? How do you increase the likelihood of a good response rate? What survey administration method usually has a strong response rate?
o Response rate is important because a high response rate shows that the results are representative and reliable.
o Increase likelihood of good response rate by offering incentives, personalizing invitations, and sending reminders
o In-person and telephones surveys typically have the best response rates
· How do a focus group and an interview differ?
o A focus group gathers several participants together to discuss a topic, encouraging interaction and group dynamics
o An interview is a one-on-one conversation that allows for deeper, more personal insights.
· What are the various roles that a scientist can take on while collecting observational data?
o Complete Observer – a role in participant observation in which the researcher does not participate in group activities and is publicly defined as a researcher.
o Participant Observer – way of gathering data that involves developing a sustained relationship with people while they go about their normal activities.
o Complete Participant – a role in field research in which the researcher does not reveal their identity as a researcher to those who are observed.
o Observer-as-Partiticpant
· What is “saturation” point in qualitative methods?
o When the collected data no longer yields new themes, insights, or patterns.