AICE International Chapter 4 - History of the Chinese (1800s-1930)

China’s Initial Isolation and Forced Openness

Perspective of Superiority: China historically felt superior to all foreigners and was convinced there was little to gain from international contact.
Economic Stance: The nation was self-contained with no internal need or desire for trade.
Forced Market Access: Starting in the 1800s, Europe forced China to open its markets.
British Opium Trade: Britain began selling opium to the Chinese people, which served as a catalyst for conflict.
The Opium Wars: Chinese opposition to the drug trade led to several conflicts: * First Opium War: $1839 - 1842$ * Second Opium War: $1856$
Treaty of Tientsin: This treaty opened Chinese ports to foreign traders.
Foreign Control: European governments and businesses ignored Chinese laws and assumed political control over various areas.
Internal Turmoil: * Taiping Rebellion ( $1850 - 1864$ ): This massive internal conflict was only put down with the assistance of British and French forces. * Sino-Japanese War ( $1894 - 1895$ ): A war sparked in $1894$ by a dispute over the control of Korea. China surrendered in $1895$ . * Shimonoseki Treaty ( $1895$ ): Under the terms of this treaty, Japan gained control of Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and Port Arthur. * Open Door Policy ( $1899$ ): Initiated due to United States concerns that one nation might take full control over China. These negotiations ensured multiple nations could enjoy the benefits of Chinese trade. China was merely "informed" of the outcome.

The Boxer Rebellion and National Crisis

Boxer Rebellion ( $1898 - 1901$ ; also cited as $1871 - 1914$ contextually): Chinese nationalists, angered by the government’s failure to prevent foreign influence, rose in rebellion.
International Response: An eight-nation alliance suppressed the rebellion.
Compensation: The alliance forced the Chinese government to pay compensation totaling $67 ext{ million}$ .
Consequences: The rebellion completely undermined the authority of the Chinese government.
Review of Foreign Relations: * Foreign nations were prepared to work together to exploit China rather than acting in opposition. * By the end of the 19th century, Chinese nationalism was beginning to develop. * The 19th-century government lacked the capability to maintain control over the country.

The Fall of the Qing Dynasty and the Rise of Yuan Shih-kai

19th Century Failures: * Defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War confirmed China's weakness. * The Russo-Japanese War was fought on Chinese territory, highlighting China's powerlessness.
Death of Empress Tzu-Hsi ( $1908$ ): Her death left the three-year-old Pu Yi on the throne.
Xinhai Revolution ( $1911$ ): Triggered by anger over the government's continued payments of Boxer Rebellion fees to foreigners.
Yuan Shih-kai (Yuan Shin-kai): * Supported by the Beiyang army, he came out of retirement in $1911$ to become the Prime Minister of China. * Declared President in $1912$ . * By $1914$ , he established a military dictatorship, making himself dictator. * In $1915$ , he attempted to cancel the republican government and declare himself Emperor, leading to further rebellion from the Chinese people. * 21 Demands: His government faced extreme backlash for its inability to confront foreign interference during this period.

The Republic and Western Modernization

Kuomintang (KMT / Revolutionary Alliance): Sun Yat-sen returned to China and was elected "Provisional President of China" in $1912$ . This divided the country between North and South.
Education Reform ( $1894 - 1905$ ): Schools began offering Western-style education, and the traditional Confucian examinations were abolished.
Sun Yat-sen’s Vision: He pushed for Western modernization and attempted to overthrow the government but had left China in $1894$ before the successful revolution.

The Warlord Era ( $1916 - 1928$ ) and the May Fourth Movement

Warlord Characteristics: Leaders were interested only in self-interest and wealth; the country entered a state of stagnation with no social or economic reform.
Intellectual Response: The violence of warlords encouraged radical and revolutionary ideas.
The May Fourth Revolution (New Culture Movement): Intellectuals and writers argued for reform, suggesting that China must adopt Western values to restore strength and unity and criticizing traditional culture for preventing modernization.
Primary Goals: * Adopt Western culture to facilitate industrialization. * End foreign interference. * Destroy the power of the warlords. * Reunify the country of China.
Paris Peace Conference Impact: Japan was given control of former German-controlled territory in the Province of Shantung. This led to a rebellion of $5,000$ students at Peking University. While leaders were arrested, widespread strikes followed. China eventually regained control but lacked the ability to manage it effectively.
Envisioned Developments: * Social: Emergence of a working class aware of its power through strikes. * Economic: Development of science and industry. * Political: Formation of the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). * Cultural: Changes to written language to encourage literacy; replacing "Confucian" values with individual freedom; encouraging Chinese nationalism for unity.

Ideology and the KMT-CCP Alliance

Chinese Communist Party (CCP): Initially small and insignificant. The Russian "Comintern" saw it as an opportunity to spread communism in Asia. Led by Chin Duxiu.
First United Front: Russia, via Adolf Joffe, convinced the CCP to join forces with Sun Yat-sen’s KMT.
Chiang Kai-shek: Sent by Sun Yat-sen to Russia to receive military training to protect and expand the KMT.
Sun Yat-sen’s "Three Principles": * Nationalism: Maintaining a sense of country to guarantee Chinese sovereignty. * Democracy: Ending warlord control and allowing people to elect leaders; required an effective educational system. * Social and Economic Reform: Ending the rigid class system and improving peasant/working-class conditions through efficient agriculture (though notably opposing the confiscation of land from the wealthy).
Death of Sun Yat-sen ( $1925$ ): Led to a power struggle. Chiang Kai-shek conducted the "Canton Purge," removing Communists from key positions and declaring himself leader of the KMT.

The Northern Expedition

The Campaign: The KMT marched north from the southern Kwangtung Province to confront warlord armies.
Success by late $1926$ : Gained control of all China south of the Yangtze River.
Reasons for Rapid Success: * Four years of planning with Russian military advisors. * The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) was extremely well-organized and equipped (trained in China, Russia, and Japan; equipped by the USSR, Germany, and Japan). * Warlord armies were disorganized, poorly equipped, and comprised of untrained peasants or mercenaries. * The Chinese people welcomed the end of warlord power; KMT army size rose from $100,000$ to $250,000$ .
Results of the Expedition: * Divisions led to two governments: Wuhan (led by Wang Ching-wei) and Nanchang (led by Chiang Kai-shek). * $1928$ : The KMT National government was recognized overseas as the legitimate government. * The CCP established itself as a political and military leader. * Warlords were finally defeated in the "Central Plains War" in $1930$ . * Jinan Incident: Confrontation between Japan and KMT forces in Shantung Province.
Role of the USSR in Success: * Pro-USSR Influence: Russian advisors developed KMT military strength; Stalin provided aid to end Soviet isolation and create a united ally. * Con-USSR Influence: Success was also due to the inherent weakness and unpopularity of the warlords and the surge in local Chinese support.

The Three Principles of Sun Yat-sen

Nationalism: It was considered essential to maintain a sense of country to guarantee Chinese sovereignty.
Democracy: To prevent warlord control and permit the populace to elect their own leaders, the implementation of an effective educational system was deemed a prerequisite.
Social and Economic Reform: This principle aimed to abolish China’s rigid class system and improve conditions for the peasantry and working class. * More efficient agricultural practices were necessary to achieve this. * Notably, the KMT opposed the confiscation of land from the wealthy to be redistributed to the poor.

The Chinese Warlord Period and the Rise of the KMT

The Chinese Warlords: During this era, major factions included the Zhili Clique and the Fengtian Clique.
Leadership: Chiang Kai-shek emerged as the leader of the Kuomintang (KMT).
The Purification Movement (Shanghai Massacres): * In $1927$ , the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), under the leadership of Chou Enlai, organized insurrections in Shanghai and successfully overthrew the local warlord. * Chiang Kai-shek publicly congratulated the CCP but simultaneously worked behind the scenes to initiate the "Purification Movement." * Goal: To remove all communist influence within the KMT. * The White Terror: The CCP headquarters in Shanghai were closed, and a purge was initiated. Approximately $12,000$ communists were killed, including $4,000$ in Shanghai alone. * Consequences of the Purge: * The fall of Peking to KMT forces in $1928$ led Chiang to declare himself the political and military leader of China. * Russian support, including training and weapons, was withdrawn. * This forced the CCP to retreat to the mountainous regions of the Kiangsi (Jiangxi) province, led by Mao Zedong.
Assessment of the Purification Movement: Critics argue it was a major error of judgment because it denied the KMT Russian equipment, forced them to spend resources elsewhere, and failed to fully destroy the CCP, which ultimately led to Mao Zedong being elevated as the CCP leader.

Mao Zedong and the Kiangsi Soviet

Establishment: Mao Zedong established the Soviet Republic of China in $1931$ in the Kiangsi Province and helped create the "Red Army."
Popularity: The CCP's policies were highly popular among factory workers and peasants.
The Futian Incident: Following a mutiny by a battalion in Futian, Mao carried out series of purges that claimed the lives of between $10,000$ and $70,000$ people.
KMT Encirclement: Chiang Kai-shek planned to starve the CCP into submission by surrounding the Kiangsi Province. * By $1933$ , the KMT controlled half of the territory and had killed $60,000$ members of the Red Army.

The Long March

The Retreat: CCP leadership decided on a full-scale retreat rather than Mao’s suggestion of a breakout and surprise attack on the rear.
Casualties: The CCP was constantly pursued by KMT forces. Of the original force (implied around $90,000$ ), they lost $45,000$ men in battle.
Reaching Yenan: Eventually, only $20,000$ survivors reached Yenan (Yan'an).
Interpretations of the Long March: * As a Defeat: The CCP lost control of the Kiangsi Province and suffered immense casualties (only $20,000$ out of $90,000$ survived). * As a Victory: Chinese communism survived, Mao became the undisputed leader of the CCP, and they were able to develop a safe base in Yenan to rebuild the army.

Policy of Non-Resistance and the Xi'an Incident

KMT Non-Resistance Policy: Chiang Kai-shek initially adopted a policy of non-resistance toward Japanese aggression for two reasons: 1. The KMT did not have full control of China (the CCP controlled the North). 2. China was perceived as too weak and divided to win a war against Japan. * Chiang’s priority remained the destruction of the CCP.
The Xi'an Incident: Generals Chang Hsueh-Liang and Yang Hu-ch’eng were appointed to lead attacks on the CCP in Yenan. * The generals felt fighting the Japanese was more important than fighting fellow Chinese communists. * When Chiang arrived in Yenan to supervise, they kidnapped him.
Negotiations and Results: * Assisted by the USSR, the CCP and KMT negotiated a cessation of the campaign against the CCP and the formation of a Second United Front against Japan. * Outcomes: Chiang resumed his leadership; the policy of non-resistance ended; the USSR achieved a more united China to fight Japan (serving Russian self-interest); and the CCP was no longer under KMT threat.

Life in the Yenan Soviet

Community Integration: The CCP lived and worked among the peasants, building libraries and hospitals.
Economic Relief: All forms of taxation were abolished in new districts for the first year.
Land Redistribution: Land and livestock were taken from the wealthy and redistributed to "land-hungry" peasants. Landlords and peasants were permitted only as much land as they could farm with their own labor.
The Rectification Movement: A terror campaign designed to purge CCP members who disagreed with Mao, resulting in the deaths of $10,000$ members. Its official reason was to encourage recruits to read CCP policies, but the motive was to identify and kill opponents.
Propaganda and Foreign Relations: Foreign visitors, such as journalist Edgar Snow, were shown only positive aspects of the Yenan Soviet to gain resources and support. Snow reported that peasants supported the movement because it radically changed the situation for "have-not" elements compared to the burden of the KMT regime.

War with Japan and Civil War Dynamics ( $1945$ - $1949$ )

Japanese Invasion: Following the invasion of Manchuria in $1931$ , the "Tanggu Truce" was signed in $1933$ , recognizing Japanese territory. A full-scale invasion began in July $1937$ .
Strategic Reactions: * The KMT army retreated to Western China, fleeing traditional battles they could not win, which led to high unpopularity. * The CCP utilized sabotage and propaganda. * Yellow River Dam: Mao ordered the destruction of the dam to stop the Japanese advance, resulting in the deaths of $1,000,000$ Chinese people. Propaganda successfully portrayed this as a CCP success.
Civil War Progression ( $1945$ - $1949$ ): * 1946: Areas controlled by Communists were concentrated in the North (e.g., Harbin, Jilin). * June 1949: Communist control expanded significantly across the North and Central China. * 1950: Communists gained control of most of the mainland, including the South (Guangzhou, Guilin). * Final Campaigns: Campaigns were launched to expel KMT armies to Taiwan, where the KMT maintained control after $1950$ .
Major Battles (Month.Year): * Jilin ( $1.48$ ) * Changchun ( $10.48$ ) * Shenyang ( $11.48$ ) * Zhangjiakou ( $1.48$ ) * Beijing ( $1.49$ ) * Xuzhou ( $1.49$ ) * Nanjing ( $4.49$ ) * Shanghai ( $5.49$ ) * Hankow ( $5.49$ )

Questions & Discussion

Why did Chiang adopt a policy of non-resistance to Japanese aggression? * Answer: He did not have full control of China and felt the country was not strong enough yet to defeat the Japanese.
Why was this policy unpopular with many members of the KMT? * Answer: It contradicted growing Chinese nationalism, leading to a loss of popularity for the KMT government.
Why was the CCP prepared to collaborate with the KMT despite the Purification Movement? * Answer: Collaborating gave them time to establish themselves as the party most committed to national unity and the defense of China.
How significant was the USSR to the development of both the KMT and CCP between $1920$ and $1936$ ? * Answer: Very significant; the development of both parties was not possible without Russian advisors.
How reliable is Edgar Snow’s account of life in the Yenan Soviet? * Answer: It is questionable, as the CCP only showed him what they wanted him to see in order to secure foreign resources.
Compare and contrast KMT and CCP reactions to the Japanese invasion after $1937$ . * Answer: The KMT engaged in traditional battles but was no match and retreated; the CCP sabotaged infrastructure (like the dam) and avoided direct confrontation.
What problems did Japanese troops face? * Answer: China was too large and the mountainous terrain was difficult to conquer entirely.
How significant was propaganda in the development of the CCP? * Answer: It was crucial in turning the population against the KMT and framing CCP actions as successes.

Status of Japan Following World War I

Following the conclusion of World War I, Japan emerged as a wealthy nation characterized by significant industrialization.
Japan maintained a powerful navy and significantly increased its political and economic influence over China.
During this period, Japan developed a form of constitutional democracy.

The Paris Peace Conference and the Racial Equality Proposal

At the Paris Peace Conference, Japan was recognized as $1$ of the $5$ great powers and was awarded control of former German possessions located in Asia.
Tensions emerged during the conference regarding the Racial Equality Proposal: - Japan was the only non-Western great power and was determined to ensure that Western notions of racial superiority would not undermine its global position. - The proposal was ultimately turned down by President Woodrow Wilson because he was unable to gain the necessary unanimous agreement.
The rejection led to significant Japanese anger and resentment: - The nation was deeply divided over joining a Western-led organization (the League of Nations), a feeling intensified when the racial equality clause was rejected. - There was a widespread perception that Japan was not being treated as an equal to Western powers. - Resentment was further fueled when the Shantung Providence was returned to China from Japanese control.

Questions & Discussion: The Racial Equality Clause

Question 1: Why did Japan want a 'race equality clause' included in the covenant of the League of Nations? - Answer: Japan did not want 'racial superiority' to undermine their power as a Great Power and sought formal recognition of equality to protect their standing.
Question 2: Identify as many reasons as you can to explain why this proposal was rejected. - Answer: Reasons for rejection included: - Britain's empire was comprised of large non-white populations, which made the proposal politically sensitive. - Domestic policies in the USA, Canada, and Australia already involved banning Japanese immigration. - President Wilson believed the issue was so divisive it would jeopardize the unanimous agreement required for the League's covenant.

The Washington Naval Conference of $1921$

Japan continued to pursue pro-Western policies during this time despite growing concerns from the civilian population.
Japan felt it had little choice but to agree to terms, as it saw no viable way to compete with the major Western naval powers.
Japanese leadership felt that compromising at the conference would enable them to continue their expansion into China.

Failure of Constitutional Democracy: Political and Economic Factors

Foundations of Democracy: A constitutional democracy was established in $1889$ with the formation of the Diet (parliament).
Contextual Challenges: Democracy was a new concept to Japanese culture, and the $20s$ and $30s$ brought significant problems similar to those seen in Europe.
Political Factors (Failures): - The Japanese population became heavily nationalistic and anti-West. - There was harsh criticism of the Washington Navel agreement. - Significant anger existed regarding the Japanese Exclusion Act of $1924$ in the USA. - Secret societies were formed with the goal of restoring the full power of the Emperor. - These societies began to assassinate leading political figures. - May $15^{th}$ Incident $1932$ :Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was killed by navel officers.
Economic Factors (Failures): - Following WWI, European products returned to the Asian market, and Japanese goods could not compete in terms of price or quality. - Over-production led to a fall in prices, resulting in unemployment. - Great Depression: The Wall Street crash in $1929$ led to a further decline in demand. - A lack of demand for Japanese textile exports caused widespread poverty and famine.

The Invasion of Manchuria by the Kwantung Army

Reasons for the Invasion: - $1$ . In $1928$ , the KMT claimed that Japanese treaties in Manchuria were invalid, which threatened Japan's economic stability during the Great Depression. - $2$ . Manchuria was rich in natural resources, whereas the Japanese home islands had very few. - $3$ . Japan viewed Manchuria as vital for achieving self-sufficiency to protect against the danger of a future blockade. - $4$ . Europe was distracted by the Great Depression and China was preoccupied with civil war and floods. - $5$ . The Manchurian incident demonstrated to Japan how important the military was to the nation's future. - $6$ . Public opinion supported the invasion as a perceived solution to the depression.
Impact of the Invasion: - The invasion led to Japan withdrawing from the League of Nations. - The Washington Conference agreements were no longer considered valid. - Japan entered into the Anti-Comintern Pact in $1936$ .

The Second Sino-Japanese War and the Marco Polo Bride Incident

The war began with the Marco Polo Bride incident, where Chinese forces allegedly fired on a Japanese training exercise.
Japan used this incident as a justification to declare war on China.
Key Questions and Answers regarding the Conflict: - Question 1: Identify as many reasons as you can to explain why Japan was not able to conquer the whole of China following its invasion in $1937$ ? - Answer:Renewed unity between the KMT and CCP led to a stalemate between $1939-41$ . Additionally, China's vast size made it impossible for Japan to control effectively, and as the Japanese military advanced, their supply lines were sabotaged. - Question 2: Why were Japanese military leaders divided over what action to take following the invasion of China? - Answer: Military leaders argued that WWII offered a unique opportunity similar to WWI (invoking the logic of 'when the cat's away'), while the Prime Minister was more concerned about a possible attack by the USSR. - Question 3: What were the significance for Japan's Foreign Policy of Germany’s invasion of the USSR in June $1941$ ? - Answer: The invasion meant that a possible USSR invasion of Japan was no longer a threat, allowing Japan to refocus its strategy.

Escalation of Tensions with the United States

The USA became increasingly concerned with Japanese expansionism in Asia, though it initially practiced isolationism and did little after the Manchurian invasion.
$1940$ : The Japanese invasion of Indo-China resulted in limited military sanctions by the US.
$1941$ : The invasion of French Indo-China led to an increased US military presence in the Philippines and the end of oil exports to Japan, which were vital for military operations.
Roosevelt's Strategy: President Roosevelt believed sanctions would force Japan to back down due to two perceived vulnerabilities: - $1$ . The Japanese military was weak and could not force a quick defeat of China. - $2$ . The presence of British and American forces in the Pacific region served as a deterrent.

The Breakdown of Diplomacy and the Attack on Pearl Harbor

Japanese Justification for Ending Relations: The Japanese government stated that its "earnest hope" to promote peace in the Pacific through cooperation "has finally been lost" and that, given the US attitude, reaching an agreement through further negotiations was "impossible."
Reasons for US Unpreparedness: - Roosevelt wanted to enter WWII and may have ignored warning signs. - US intelligence was flawed, expecting an attack on the Dutch Indies or the Philippines rather than Pearl Harbor.
Japan’s Motives for the Attack: - Military leaders believed war with the USA was inevitable and saw the US presence in the Pacific as a prelude to an attack; Pearl Harbor was a pre-emptive strike. - They looked to the Russo-Japanese victory as a precedent, which was achieved via a surprise attack on Port Arthur. - Destroying the US Pacific fleet would undermine the US's ability to fight a naval war. - The attack was intended to undermine the moral of the American people to force a peaceful settlement.

Evaluation of the Pearl Harbor Attack Success

Evidence for Success: - The USA was totally underprepared. - Japan destroyed $190$ aircraft, $8$ ships, and killed $2,402$ men.
Evidence for Failure: - A significant number of American ships were out at sea and escaped the attack. - The shallow water of the harbor made it easy to repair damaged ships. - Japan failed to destroy the vital supply of oil. - The attack turned American public opinion sharply anti-Japan and pro-war.