Biology 1011 Exam Preparation Notes

Chapter 1: Characteristics of Life & Evolution

  • Characteristics of life include:

  • Homeostasis: Maintaining internal environment

  • Responding to environment

  • Reproduction and development (via DNA)

  • Adaptation to environments

  • Evolution: Change in species characteristics over generations through natural selection.

Chapter 2: Atoms and Water

  • Atoms & Bonds:

  • Elements: Cannot be broken down; e.g. C, H, O, N make up 96% of body weight.

  • Subatomic particles: Protons (positive), Neutrons (neutral), Electrons (negative).

  • Types of Chemical Bonds:

    • Ionic Bonds: Attract opposite charges (e.g. Sodium + Chlorine).

    • Covalent Bonds: Share electrons (e.g. H₂ molecules).

  • Water:

  • Polar covalent bonds: Unequal electron sharing.

  • Properties of water:

    • High solvency, cohesion, adhesion, surface tension.

    • High heat capacity and vaporization, density variation (ice less dense).

Chapter 3: Macromolecules

  • Organic Molecules:

  • Hydrocarbons: Chains of carbon.

  • Carbohydrates: Energy source and structural roles.

    • Classifications:

    • Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (e.g. Glucose).

    • Disaccharides: Two sugars (e.g. Sucrose).

    • Polysaccharides: Many sugars (e.g. Starch, Glycogen).

  • Lipids: Insoluble in water; includes fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.

  • Proteins: Made of amino acids; function based on structure; they perform a variety of cellular roles.

Chapter 4: Cell Structure and Functions

  • Plasma Membrane:

  • Fluid mosaic model: Flexible phospholipid bilayer with proteins.

  • Cell Types:

  • Prokaryotes: No nucleus, smaller, faster reproduction.

  • Eukaryotes: Have a nucleus, larger, compartmentalized tasks via organelles.

  • Organelles:

  • Nucleus: Stores genetic information.

  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER makes proteins; Smooth ER synthesizes lipids.

  • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.

  • Mitochondria: Energy production, ATP synthesis, own DNA.

  • Chloroplasts: Found in plants; photosynthesis.

Chapter 5: Cellular Transport

  • Transport Mechanisms:

  • Selective permeability and diffusion types:

    • Passive transport: No energy, moves down concentration gradient (Diffusion, Osmosis).

    • Active transport: Energy required to move against concentration gradient (e.g. Na+/K+ pump).

    • Bulk transport: Endocytosis and Exocytosis for larger molecules.

Chapter 6-7: Cellular Respiration

  • Types of Respiration:

  • Aerobic: Requires oxygen, produces ATP (main reactions: Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, ETC).

  • Anaerobic: Fermentation occurring without oxygen, only yield 2 ATP.

Chapter 8: The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

  • Reasons for cell reproduction: Growth, healing, and tissue replacement.

  • Phases of Cell Cycle:

  • Interphase (G1, S, G2) and Mitosis (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase).

  • Checkpoints: Ensure proper progression through the cell cycle; apoptosis if errors detected.

Chapter 22: Human Body Organization

  • Tissues: Four types - Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous.

  • Organ Systems: Include cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, etc. that maintain homeostasis.

  • Function of digestive system and major organs involved (liver, pancreas) in digestion process.

  • The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients, which the body uses for energy, growth, and cell repair. Additionally, it involves the coordinated actions of various organs, including the stomach, intestines, and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas, which play critical roles in processing these nutrients. Furthermore, the digestive system is also responsible for the absorption of these nutrients through the walls of the intestines, ensuring that essential vitamins and minerals are available for the body's metabolic needs.