Overview of Government Systems

Majority governments are not always attained, leading to the formation of minority governments.
A minority government consists of a single party or coalition that does not hold a majority in the legislature.
Legislative coalitions are necessary to pass laws, requiring the inclusion of at least one party not in the executive coalition if the executive coalition is a minority.

In a presidential system, the president and the legislature are elected through separate elections.
In a parliamentary system, voters elect the parliament, and then the parliament selects the prime minister and cabinet.
Voters in presidential systems have simultaneous but independent votes for president and legislature, meaning that one vote does not dictate the other.
- This independence can create complexities in legislative support and coalitions.

Presidential System: The executive (president) is directly elected by the people and serves for a fixed term, like four years in the U.S., without dependence on legislative approval to remain in office.
- The president must still form a legislative coalition if their party lacks a majority, necessitating bargaining with other parties.
Parliamentary System: The executive is not directly elected by the populace but is chosen by the parliament, leading to a more direct link of accountability through legislative preferences.
- Coalition building is essential not only for governance but also to form the executive after elections since there is no predetermined executive.

In parliamentary systems, coalition building is critical both to govern and to establish an executive when the parliament convenes for the first time.
In presidential systems, while the president may need to form coalitions for legislative purposes, they do not need coalition support to retain their position.
An example of legislative coalition building is seen in Latin America, where presidents frequently form coalitions with parties outside their own.

In presidential systems, the cabinet does not necessarily have to be composed of members from the president's party. This allows for a broader coalition.
For instance, in Brazil, the president could invite parties to join the cabinet in exchange for support in parliament, even if the party does not control a majority.
Ministers in this setup do not face dismissal from parliament but work at the pleasure of the president.

Cohabitation occurs in semi-presidential systems when the president and parliament are controlled by different parties. While the parliament cannot dismiss the president, they can influence governance by controlling the cabinet, akin to a divided government in the presidential system.
The president maintains a fixed term, while the parliament’s power can vary.
Historical context in France demonstrates scenarios of cohabitation leading to complex dynamics within government.

Democracy vs. Liberalism: It is crucial to differentiate between the concepts of democracy (having elections) and liberalism (which includes protections for individual rights and minority groups).
Populist leaders often undermine liberal democratic norms by appealing to the majority while weakening institutions that resist their power.
- Populism can lead to the muzzling of media, suppression of opposition, and undermining of checks and balances.
Elections might remain intact, but when free and fair elections do not result in equitable treatment for all citizens, the quality of democracy deteriorates.
Populists frame themselves as champions of the common people against elites, leading to antagonistic narratives against the media or opposition groups.

Political theorist Dahl emphasized two dimensions of democracy: participation (who is allowed to vote and engage in politics) and contestation (how much policy influence elected bodies have).
- Contestation diminishes when certain policymaking areas are restricted from elected officials.
- For example, in Iran, while elections occur, certain policies (like cultural or nuclear matters) remain under the control of non-elected bodies. This limits the elected representatives' actual governing power.

Majoritarian Democracy: Focuses on concentrating power within a singular party in governance.
- The winning party is responsible for implementing its policy promises, akin to a winner-takes-all dynamic.
Consensus Democracy: Aims to share power and involve multiple parties in the decision-making process through means like coalition governance.
- In this system, diverse groups are represented, allowing for a broader array of policy considerations and negotiations.

Ethnic federalism organizes subnational units based on ethnic divisions, often seen in plural societies.
- It allows distinct groups autonomy within the larger political framework but can lead to conflicts if boundaries and power dynamics are negotiated poorly.
Example: In Belgium, different communities hold legislative days based on language, allowing for separate governance while maintaining a federal structure.

Consociational democracy requires power-sharing among conflicting groups or parties through coalition government, ensuring political stability in divided societies.
- This contrasts with systems that may prefer majoritarian structures despite having coalition elements, particularly in presidential systems.