week 6 notes Political parties
British Politics and Government
Course: GOV 366G
Professor: David L. Leal
Semester: Spring 2025
Week 6: Political Parties
Overview of Political Parties
Big Picture
Political parties serve as the structured means through which citizens collectively express their opinions, influence policies, and participate in the governance of the country.
They are essential to week 6 notes Political pthe operation of democracy, facilitating the organization and mobilization of voters.
Dimensions of Political Parties:
Party in the Electorate: Refers to the individual voters’ affiliations and relationships with political parties.
Party in Government: Comprises elected officials who represent the party and govern on behalf of its constituents.
Party as Organization: The internal structure and administrative framework that supports the functioning and activities of the party.
Contemporary Issues in British Politics
Crisis of Traditional Parties
The Labour Party (LAB) and Conservative Party (CON) are facing a perception of crisis, indicated by several factors:
Long-term decreases in partisan attachment: Voters are increasingly identifying as independents rather than aligning strictly with traditional parties.
Decline in party membership: Unlike trends seen in the US, UK party membership has notably decreased.
Electoral performance: The combined vote share of LAB and CON has dropped from 81% during the 1979 election to just 57% in the 2024 election.
Changing voter turnout: Lower turnout rates suggest a waning enthusiasm for these traditional parties.
Hypotheses for Two-Party Decline
Emergence of new issues
That cross-cut prior battle lines
Policy positions too similar
Support or ignore same issues
e.g. class, region, immigration
Both support a "neo-liberal" consensus
Performance
Main parties cannot deliver
Consistently disappoint many voters
e.g. relative economic decline continues regardless
New Issues: Emerging political issues are challenging the longstanding policies and beliefs of established parties.
Voter dissatisfaction: A similarity in the policy positions of LAB and CON, particularly their shared neoliberal approach, has demotivated voters.
Claims that parties are elitists
LAB and CON have become too professionalized
Run by middle class Oxbridge graduates and“professional politicians”– More catch-all “brands” appealing to mushy middle than representing or engaging citizens
Have become “elitist” vehicles for capturing power, not movements rooted in communities
Identity Politics and Participation
The political landscape is shifting towards identity-based politics, where individuals express their political stance based on personal identities rather than traditional class alignments.
Online engagement: The rise in digital political participation is drawing people away from local party activities.
Is Party Decline a Problem?
Scholars have a longstanding positive view of parties E.E. Schattschneider: “Modern democracy is unthinkable save in terms of parties"
E.E. Schattschneider: “Modern democracy is unthinkable save in terms of parties
Danny Rye: “very hard to imagine a modernparliamentary democracy functioning without parties”
Value of Parties: Procedural
Enhance the smooth and stable running of
government
Recruit candidates and win elections
Form governments
Constitute the loyal opposition, scrutinize
legislation, hold the government accountable
Allow for smooth transition of power
Values of Parties: Representational
Structure, and simplify, political choices for
voters
Allow people to decide who should govern
Create packages of policies (manifestos)
People can join parties and contribute to policy debates and candidate selection, voice opinions; thereby connecting citizens to state
Contemporary Challenges to Parties
(1) Decline in Membership and Participation
A general decline in membership is prevalent, particularly among the major parties, leading to challenges in engaging with their base.
Third parties have seen growth due to unique leadership dynamics, such as those seen with Jeremy Corbyn.
Book suggests contemporary dynamics therefore
Tensions Between Members and Leadership
Efforts to enhance membership often result in conflicts, particularly when grassroots members support leaders whose views may not align with broader electability goals.
But what if members want party leaders that are too radical and cannot win?
Constitutional Problems
What if MPs and party members want different leader?
Government and opposition both needleaders with confidence of MPs–
Without it, cast doubt on legitimacy of leadersand weakens effectiveness of parties
Question
How to structure leader selection process that gives members a voice, but not too decisive a voice?
No easy answer to this
Different parties try different procedures
Regular changes due to unresolved tensions
(Chapter goes into too much detail about the specifics)
Who Chooses a Party’s Candidiat’s for house of commons
No US-style primaries
Mix of national guidance and local party selection (and de-selection)
Local “constituency associations” ultimately choose, but choice can be limited by national party headquarters
(2) Changing Patterns of Party Support
Reduced sense of an individual’s attachment Which lowers likelihood of voting for party More “floating” or “swing” voters More “swithering”
Scottish term; voting sometimes, but not always
Downward trajectory since 1980s
Obscured by FPTP systemCON and LAB could still win majorities in Commons even if popular vote dropped2024: LAB wins about 1/3 of popular vote but won almost 2/3 of Commons seats
Growth of Third Parties
Electoral Landscape: The effective number of electoral parties has increased, indicating a shift toward a "two and a half" party system in the UK. (ENEP) Effective number of electoral parties
Historical Data: The average Effective Number of Electoral Parties (ENEP) rose from 2.35 during 1950-1974 to 3.23 in 2019.
Does UK have a “two and a half” party
system?
Historical Context of Political Parties
Key Legislative Milestones:
1832 Reform Act:
Laid the foundation for organized political parties but reinforced aristocratic dominance.
Expanded size of electorate
1867 Reform Act:
Significantly expanded the electorate, improving party organization and representation of diverse interests.
made parties have to
Parties were needed to contact voters
Parties were needed to raise money for
electoral campaigns
A need to aggregate the increasingly diverse
interests of voters under party umbrellas
Corruption now ineffective, replaced by party
organizations
Development in the 19th Century:
The Conservative (CON) and Liberal (LIB) parties developed hierarchical structures and evolved from parliamentary factions to organized entities with specific goals.
Both started with parliamentary parties
“Party in Government”
Then “voluntary party” created to support
them, not instruct them
“Party as Organization”
Top down” party leadership
Manifesto idea not well developed at that
point
Conservative Party Perspectives:
Landed gentry base
Focus on preserving existing institutions Such as Church of England, Monarchy, aristocracy
Belief in organic nature of society Accepted only slow, evolutionary change
Not change for change’s sake Against radical ideologies of any kind Edmund Burke and French Revolution
Associated with…Authority, law and order, private property Limited government
Disraeli and “one Nation” conservatism
Wanted upper and working class alliance Against the new industrial and merchant classes
Advocated social and electoral reforms tocompete with Liberals
Term still used today by moderate wing of Conservative Party
Labour Party Formation:
Founded in 1900 as a coalition of socialism and trade union interests, continuously adapting to changing social and political contexts
Alliance of socialism and trade unionism
Became Labour Party in 1906
1918 ConstitutionTo differentiate from Liberals
Early Electoral Gains
Early Electoral Gains
Displaces Liberal Party in 1922 election
Labour: 142 seats
Liberals / National Liberals: 115
Became main opposition to Conservatives
Liberals become a “third party” but survived
In 1924, first Labour government
Nine-month minority governmentPM Ramsay MacDonald
Mostly in opposition in 20th centuryWith key exceptions of McDonald, Clement Attlee,Tony Blair
Four Early Principals
Full employment and minimum wage
Public ownership of industry
Social services, funded by taxing highincomes
Surplus national wealth for education andculture'
Clement Attlee's Leadership:
Deputy PM during World War II
Coalition government led by Winston Churchill
Labour PM 1945-1951– Defeated Churchill and Conservatives in 1945
The Labour victory in the 1945 election resulted in major advancements, including the establishment of the welfare state and foundational reforms, such as the creation of the National Health Service (NHS).
Post-War Debates within Labour
Context: Post-1945 Labour faced internal disputes over principles and policy direction amid new socio-economic realities.
By 1950s, left vs. revisionist debate
Was public ownership still necessary?
Could a mixed economy now be successful?
Electoral defeats and unsuccessful
governments from 1964-1994
Social Democratic Party (SDP) split (1981)
“Gang of Four”
26 centrist PLP members
1 Conservative
Opposed to “hard left”
After Thatcher, choice of moving to left or to
the middle
Tony Blair as Party Leader
Leadership Era: Focused on modernizing Labour’s image, leading to the formation of "New Labour."
Key Policies: Emphasized social justice, economic reform, and centrist governance, moving away from traditional leftist policies.
Electoral Success: Achieved significant electoral victories in 1997, 2001, and 2005, marking a shift in Labour support dynamics.
Critiques: Faced criticism from traditionalists for abandoning core socialist values, sparking ongoing debate within the party.
Emergence of New Parties in Late 20th Century
Rise of Third Parties: Introduction of significant new parties in the UK political landscape, responding to dissatisfaction with Labour and Conservative parties.
Initially win offices in regional assemblies,
local councils
And in European Parliament
No longer b/c Brexit
Because these elections incorporate PR
features
And only FPTP for Commons elections
Some formed local governments or became
coalition partners with Labou
Key Parties:
Until 1970, only the Liberal Party
Since 1970, growing number and presence
Especially in Scotland, Wales, Northern
Ireland
Scottish National Party (SNP): Advocated for Scottish independence and representation.
Plaid Cymru (PC): Focused on Welsh representation and interests, paralleling SNP's regional emphasis.
UKIP (1991): Emerged focusing on British nationalism and Euroscepticism.
Green Party (1973): Prioritized environmental issues, reflecting growing public concern over sustainability.
Liberal Democrats
Formation and Ideology: Formed in 1988 through the merger of the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party, centering on social liberalism.
originally a merger then named “lib Democrats in 1989”
Key Electoral Problems:
Electoral Disadvantage: Struggles within the first-past-the-post system hinder the ability to gain parliamentary seats proportional to voter support.
Voter Perception: The party often perceived as lacking influence, leading to challenges in maintaining voter loyalty.
Who Are the Lib Dems?
Political Position: Positioned as a centrist party focusing on progressive policies across economic, civil, and social issues.
Recent Developments: Shifted focus post-2010 election to regain support after previous coalition government criticisms.
Initially advocated consensus government,
breaking mold of adversarial politics
But many voters confused by new name and new
leaders
Today, not easy to define political views
Very local orientation, so views not always
consistent across constituencies
Maybe in-between CON and LAB
Maybe more to center left?
Classical liberal tradition?
Today, known as strongly pro-Europe
Liberal Party: Electoral Problems
Historical Context: The Liberal Party saw a decline as Labour rose, struggling to maintain relevance against the backdrop of a two-party system.
Realignment of Support: Many former Liberal voters shifted allegiance to Labour, weakening the party's base.
Liberal Democrats: Electoral Opportunities
Can compete in old Liberal Party strongholds
South of England and “Celtic Fringe”
Main opposition to Tories in South and rural
areas where Labour weak
Remarkable recent resurgence
Only 6 seats after 1959 election
Only 12 seats after 2019 election
Unclear if party would survive…
Opportunities, Scottish and Welsh
Emerged in 1960
Plaid Cymru (Party of Wales)
Preservation of Welsh heritage and language
Scottish National Party (SNP)
Dissatisfaction with Westminster
Supports an independent Scotland
SNP and parallels
Both won at expense of Labour Party
Won more seats in regional assemblies than
national elections
Because of electoral systems beyond FPTP
Became parties of government in regional
assemblies
Also won local and European elections
SNP success in 2015 national election (56/59)
Implications for Northern Ireland
Political Landscape: Unique party structure influenced by sectarian divisions, leading to distinct electoral dynamics compared to Great Britain.
Emergence of New Voices: Increased calls for representation reflecting diverse societal needs, beyond traditional party lines.
Ulster Unionists (UUP)
Democratic Unionists (DUP)
Alliance Party
Social and Democratic Labour Party (SDLP)
Sinn Fein (SF)
DUP and SF power sharing in Northern
Ireland Assembly (“Stormont”)
UKIP (1991)
Against “metropolitan elites”
Advocacy of the “left behinds”
immigration and EU
Led by Nigel Farage (also MEP)
FPTP challenge
Green Party (1973)
Originally People’s Party
Left-progressive policy positions
Gained voters at expense of LD and Labour
1st MP in 2010
Caroline Lucas (2010-24)
Relatively affluent constituency (Brighton Pavilion)
2024 election
4 MPs
6.4% of popular vote
The “deposit”
£500 fee to appear on ballot
Candidates “lose deposits” if receive less than 5% of vote in a constituency
2024 election: 1,673 candidates lost deposit (37% of all candidates)
Lib Dems (229) and Greens (258)
Challenge of “third parties” trying to run nationally
2010 Election
No party with majority in Commons
Coalition of Conservatives and Lib Dems From 2010-15
Signal a party system realignment?
Was it a “critical election”?
When links between parties and social groups
change
New issues, candidates, or events
Moments when long term changes become manifest
Examples of Critical Elections
1932: Roosevelt
His New Deal begins new direction for national
government
1924: Labour surpasses Liberal Party
Main competition now between Conservatives and
Labour
1945: Surprising Labour victory
Over Winston Churchill and Conservatives
1979: Thatcher victory
Still Two Party Dominance Today?
Contemporary Analysis: Ongoing debates about whether the two-party system remains dominant, with third parties gaining traction but facing systemic barriers.
Some say No Because of growing small-party vote share
Because of coalition
Some say Yes
Because 2010 coalition replaced by 2015
Public Opinion: Voter consultation suggests dissatisfaction with current party representations prompts calls for alternatives.
Alternative Idea
Claim that UK heading toward multilevel
government with multiparty system
Due to devolution and different electoral
systems
e.g. SNP in Scotland, Labour in Wales,
Conservatives or Labour nationally
Elections Used to Be Simple…
Historical Context: Earlier elections characterized by clearer party allegiances and simple party loyalty among voters.
Parties represent different segments of
society
Parties propose and enacts programs
Sovereignty resides in Parliament
Voters have no role in-between elections
How much is changing, due both to Brexit and
continuing dynamics
Key Role of Parties in Britain
Functionality: Political parties serve as crucial intermediaries between citizens and the government, shaping policies and political narratives.
Reluctant Official Recognition
Challenges in Recognition: While parties form the bedrock of political processes, official recognition has been slow, reflecting systemic biases favoring major parties.
1998 Registration of the Parties Act
Departure from constitutional silence
Regulated use of party names and logos on ballot
Until 1969, party labels not on ballots
Party still not part of an MP’s formal
description
Yet Parties Control Political Process
Control Dynamics: Despite recognition issues, parties dictate much of the political agenda, impacting legislation and public policy directly.
Candidate Selection:
Select candidates locally.
Act as gatekeepers and recruiting agents with a small "selectorate".
Possibility of "deselection" by local party members.
Appointment Authority: Control a vast world of appointed government positions, including putting people into the House of Lords.
Policy Agenda: Have significant influence in setting and controlling policy agendas.
Leadership Production: Responsible for producing political leaders who represent party ideologies.
Permanent Campaigning: Conduct a "permanent campaign," maintaining electoral readiness.
Coalition Dynamics: Coalitions exist within parties rather than between them, creating a veneer of unity that was exposed by events like Brexit.
Debate about Parties
Ongoing Discourse: Scholars and politicians debate the efficacy and representation levels offered by parties, questioning their roles in democracy.
Mass Democracy and Mass Parties: Emergence of mass parties, particularly influenced by the 1867 Reform Act.
Good or Bad?: Discussions about whether mass parties promote factional and sectional evils or whether they promote national interests and principles.
Bagehot's Perspective: Claims that political action cannot occur without parties, emphasizing their integral role in the democratic process.
Mandate Claims: Post-election, claims of mandates can sometimes appear "absurd" and "brazen," leading to debates about the legitimacy of these claims.
Two-Party System "Normal"?
Perception Debates: Is the two-party system considered the norm due to historical precedents, or are recent developments signaling a shift?
Yes, from post-1920s viewpoint:
Labour and Conservative dominance.
Departure of most Irish MPs after the creation of the Republic of Ireland.
Especially immediately after 1945, close to pure two-party model emerged.
Tight class-ideology-party fit with 90%+ of all votes going to Conservative and Labour.
But Was That Time Unique?
Comparative Assessment: Historical analysis suggests that periods of two-party dominance are punctuated by regional and third-party surges, indicating underlying political discontent.
Recent Changes
Concealed Dynamics: Structural changes within the political landscape have shifted voter preferences, though these shifts have been largely ignored until recent electoral events.
Decline in Two-Party (C and L) Share of Popular Vote:
After the 1970s, the winning party's vote share would have lost them elections in prior decades.
Since 1974, all seats have been contested by at least three parties
Increase in “Class Dealignment”
– Age and education more relevant to party
voting
– In 2019, Tories won lowest paid/educated
voters
Increase in “Partisan Dealignment”
– Weakening attachment by voters
– More voter switching (“floating voters”
Changes, Now Evident
Yet Changes were “Concealed” for Decades
First-past-the-post system
Two-party dominance continued
Third parties with popular vote distributed across
nation were disadvantaged
British politics looked the same, but was not
Preserved “obsolete” adversarialism
But protected against fragmentation
Do Parties Claim Too Much for Themselves?
An ever diverse society, yet two parties had tight grip on politics.
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds has more members than all UK parties.
Some predictions of realignment, but how?
Failure of new "Change UK" party in 2019 election.
Role of Referenda
Now increasingly used for constitutional
changes
A reasonable alternative to traditional
parliamentary representation?
Denounced by Clement Attlee (and echoed by
Margaret Thatcher) as “so alien to all our traditions”
Used by parties when faced with internal divisions
e.g. Referenda on Europe (1975 and 2016)
But Brexit convulsed political system
Is “the sovereignty of the people” … “trumping
the sovereignty of parliament”?
Producing a populist style of politics?