Ghosts, Spirits, and the Living Dead
In all cultures, some belief in supernatural beings or entities
associated with death
Degree to which beings viewed as real versus fictitious varies
But mere existence in culture’s worldview - important concepts
In cultures where supernatural beings believed to be real
clearly connected to religious faiths and practices
In many cases, beings human-like or ‘parts’ of humans
either remain in world of living or periodically travel to it
Reasons for presence in world of living vary
Not always malevolent creatures
In majority of cases:
capable of causing harm to living in some capacity
Ancestral Spirits
One of most common forms: ancestral spirit.
Spirits of deceased relatives who have transitioned to afterlife realm
Believed to continue to exist and influence lives of their living descendants
In many cultures and belief systems, ancestral spirits hold sacred place
considered source of wisdom, guidance, and protection
Believed to possess valuable knowledge and experiences
can be passed down to living descendants
Bridge between physical and spiritual worlds.
Capable of providing support and insight to those seeking connection
Many people turn to ancestors for guidance in
making important life decisions
seeking spiritual meaning
gaining a deeper understanding of their roots
In some cases:
seen as forces of truth and justice who mete out punishment on wrong-doers
May be incorporated into culture’s system of law and assist in determining guilt or innocence
Common belief:
theory of unfinished business to explain attachment of ancestral spirits to living family members
Some deceased feel compelled to complete unfinished business with living
Believed to continue to hang around family until unfinished business has been completed
The Zulu
In most Indigenous African cultures, belief that:
for the gift of life, child forever indebted to parents
Child owes them obedience and deference
Among Zulu of South Africa, even after death of parents
child expected to continue to provide for parents in spirit world
Attachment to ancestral spirits (amadlozi):
affirmation of multiple realities of human beings
Dead people are still around even though they are in non-visible dimension of reality
Attachment to ancestral spirits
acknowledgment that spirits of dead still live on
Deceased
transcended to another realm
need to be treated with respect and honor
Believe fortune (inhlanhla) comes by acknowledging ancestors
Such acknowledgement and proper treatment of ancestral spirits
translate to goodwill and successful life for living descendants
e.g., bigger crops, better business deals, etc.
Ancestor spirits play fundamental role in Zulu cosmology
Believed to reside on earth, in sacred groves, and in family homesteads
In most Indigenous African belief systems, not all dead can qualify as ancestors
To qualify for ancestorhood, human being must have:
lived to old age
produced children
died a good death (usually of old age)
received honorable burial rites
lived a moral life
Violent death through suicide, for instance
considered bad death
Bad deaths
result of bad morality and caused by one's immoral actions
For example: one bad action may be disrespecting ancestors
consequently losing their protection
Belief that not performing some rituals of veneration of ancestors
form of disrespect
leads to lack of protection from ancestors
Ancestors:
regarded as constituting moral force
but not grounds of morality
Zulu ancestors:
bound by moral code under which they lived on earth
In many Indigenous African cultures, not clear whether ancestral spirits are immortal
In hierarchy of beings:
below God and the lesser deities
above human beings
Ancestor spirits
offered food and drink during prayer sessions invoking their protection
Generally believed
ancestor spirits may communicate directly with their living families through dreams or indirectly through diviners
Diviners:
may interpret family misfortune as calamity masterminded by angry ancestor spirits starved of veneration by living
Ancestral spirits are powerful enough to intervene in natural course of things
punish/reward living as necessary
Indigenous Hawai’ians
Among many Indigenous cultures of Polynesia and South Pacific
mana: disembodied force that powered universe
Found in everything from twinkling of constellations to flight of
insect or curling of wave
Human mana:
understood as person’s life force
charisma
inherited talents
intelligence
all other qualities
Travelled to person through their heredity
beginning with major spirits (akua)
to ancestral spirits (‘aumakua)
to living parents (mäkua)
Eventually pass to their own children through them
Certain abilities or talents seemed to be passed down from person to person in family (e.g., excellent hunter or gifted singer)
Seen as proof of mana being passed down from grandparent to parent to child
For example: among Indigenous Hawai’ians
canoe makers pray to ancestors who were very skillful canoe makers;
healers would pray to ancestors who were famous healers
‘Aumakua:
invisible to living
able to possess or inhabit many visible forms, animate or inanimate
Rock or small carved image set up in family shrine within the home
might be resting place for ‘aumakua
Momoa is the pointed stern of canoe hull
projects out back end of Hawai’ian canoe
seen as “seat” for invisible ‘aumakua of canoe’s owner
War club of famous warrior ancestor
might be powered by ancestor’s mana when wielded by descendant in battle
‘Aumakua also reside in living creatures
Strange or remarkable experiences with certain fish, birds, reptiles, insects, or mammals
led some Hawai’ians to see animals as forms inhabited by ‘aumakua
Hawai’ians believed ancestral spirits could make appearances to express:
parental concern for living
bringing warnings of impending danger
comfort in times of stress or sorrow
or in other ways being helpful in natural forms
Individual animals
not entire species regarded as ‘aumakua
Both chiefs and commoners venerated more illustrious ancestors as ‘aumakua and relied on their help
Some families:
believed that spirit of ancestor could appear as shark
perhaps to chase fish into nets or to guide lost canoe to safety
Families did not regard all sharks as their ‘aumakua
Nor was particular shark always an ‘aumakua
For these families, killing or eating of any shark was act of disrespect to ancestors
Believed ‘aumakua might punish them by bringing sickness upon them
Some akua, notably Laka, Pele, and Hi‘iaka
considered ‘aumakua by certain families
Both ‘aumakua and akua, dwelled in Pö
timeless eternity before universe was created
spirits of the dead returned there
‘Aumakua protected and guided descendants
as long as they were well treated
If ‘aumakua not paid acts of respect
might punish living or disengage and return the Pö
beyond call of descendants
Respect demonstrated by living in a manner that emulated virtues of ancestors
For example:
person showed appreciation for inherited talent by rigorous training and industrious application of that skill
Offering prayers
certain ancestors specifically addressed by names
All Polynesians propitiated ancestral spirits by ritual feeding
Spirits not “fed” fade away and return to Pö
Foods placed before small domestic shrines to ‘aumakua
also upon altars of chiefly chapels and altars within great temples to major gods
Sometimes animals (believed to animated by ‘aumakua)
also revered and fed
even sharks
The Igbo
Igbo of Nigeria
deep belief in spirit world
where diverse array of spirits and ancestral entities reside
Spiritual beings hold significant place in Igbo mythology - shape way community understands and interacts with their world
Belief influences decisions, rituals, and morality
World - intricate web of spiritual entities interact with humans in various ways:
nature spirits
ancestral spirits
deities
Nature spirits
believed to inhabit specific natural elements
e.g., rivers, trees, rocks, animals
Considered to have influence over natural elements
may impact lives of humans
especially if humans interact with these aspects of nature
For example:
cutting down tree
creates situation in which person involves nature spirit of tree in person’s life
Ancestral spirits
souls of deceased family members
Ancestors
revered and consulted for guidance and protection
Deities
occupy higher realm in spiritual hierarchy
represent powerful cosmic forces
play essential roles in governance of universe
Veneration of ancestral spirits
Igbo believe spirits of deceased family members continue to exist and maintain strong connection with the living
Ancestral spirits
guardians and protectors of living descendants
influence lives of living family members
Ancestor worship
deeply ingrained in Igbo culture
Spirits of deceased family members
highly respected and revered
Families
create ancestral altars in homes
adorned with personal items
offerings
symbols to honor and appease ancestors
Altars
places of communication and reverence
prayers and offerings made for guidance, protection, and blessings
Ancestral spirits
vital role in resolving disputes and conflicts within community
Elders and spiritual leaders
seek counsel of ancestors through divination to mediate conflicts and restore harmony among living
Igbo diviners (dibia or dibia mmuo)
born with ability to interpret messages from spirits
provide guidance to those seeking answers to questions or concerns
During divination
diviner uses various tools
e.g., palm nuts, cowrie shells, divining chains
to invoke spirits and receive messages
Rituals connect diviner with spirit realm
channels wisdom and guidance of spirits
Belief in ancestral spirits
crucial role in maintaining social cohesion among Igbo
Veneration of ancestors
fosters strong sense of family identity and connection
individuals feel bound to ancestors and lineage they represent
Ancestor worship
also reinforces importance of communal values and traditions
Teachings and wisdom of ancestors
passed down through generations
Shape moral and ethical values of community
Belief in ancestral spirits
also influences social norms and behavior
Fear of retribution from ancestral spirits
deters individuals from engaging in harmful behaviors
The Hopi
Indigenous Hopi - Arizona in Southwestern United States
Belief in existence of more than 500 divine and ancestral spirit beings
Spirit beings
interact with humans and affect outcomes of daily lives
Spirits are referred to as kachinas
Each Hopi group have distinct forms of kachinas
Spirits
reside in spirit world for ½ the year and with members of tribe for other ½
Kachinas
typically arrive in February (after winter solstice)
usually leave in July (after summer solstice)
Niman Ceremony
when sun at northernmost point in sky
sends them back to spirit world until next year
One reason is kachinas believed to bringers of rain for Hopi spring crops
Spirits allow themselves to be seen by living
if men in community properly perform traditional ritual dance wearing kachina masks and other ritual dress
Kachina depicted on mask
believed to present with or within performer
temporarily transforming him into spirit or spirit ancestor
Kachinas
dancers
act as go-betweens for world of spirits and world of living
Also make kachina dolls
carved out of wood and heavily decorated with paint, leather, cloth, feathers, etc
Typically, men carve dolls for young girls
Seems to be gendered tradition
boys do not receive kachina dolls
Wooden dolls
primarily used to teach girls about identities of the kachinas based on decoration
Paint colors and patterns and added leather, cloth, and feathers
symbolically represent specific kachina
Decoration on dolls is the same as dancers’ masks
The Living Dead
What happens to people when they die
consistent concern requiring explanation
All cultures must provide explanations for what happens to deceased
Common thought
part of person (e.g., soul, spirit, life force) somehow survives in afterlife
pervasive in religious beliefs around the world
Some believe in realities in which, after death, physical body of deceased continues to live on in world of living
Roles of living dead or undead creatures vary by society
Frequently conceived as malevolent creatures to variable degrees
Because they come back to life or return from dead
also referred to as ‘revenants’ (from French verb revenir or “to return”
Old Norse - Draugar
Old Norse mythology
dead can re-animate following burial and become a draug
Also known as aptrgangr (after-walker) or haugbúi (howe dweller/mound-dweller)
Draugar
typically considered antagonistic and aggressive
Some believe bellicose nature of draug
reflection of hostility and unkindness of person in life
Draugar appear as humans in process of early stages of decomposition
Described in Norse myths
hideous creatures
either black, blue, or very pale in color
smell like decay or biological decomposition
Believed to larger than average person and possess super-human strength
Increased size
connected to bloating associated with process of human decomposition?
Some descriptions have clawed hands
Draug
typically lives in or near own burial mound (howe)
most likely guarding treasure buried with it
Some live in abandoned forts or castles
Presence of draugar
demonstrated by bright light above grave
similar to idea of “will’o-the-wisp”
created by bioluminescence of insects
or ignition of swamp gas produced through decay of plant matter
Bringers of destruction and suffering
destroy physical property, bring disease, and poison person’s mind
Draug
suspected to be around when houses were damaged, animals died, and people became ill or died
In some stories, leave an object behind to prove they had been to visit someone/caused someone harm
In some stories, can enter people’s dreams to torment them
Powers
creation of darkness, shapeshifting, prophecy, or controlling wind and storms
Each individual
behavior will vary
generally agreed draug not stop until killed
Normal humans cannot kill draugar only mighty heroes could
After killed, body had to be destroyed
typically burnt
or decapitated to prevent it from returning
the ashes of draug taken far away from where people lived for safe disposed
Prevent malevolent person from becoming draug
iron scissors placed across the body
could not rise
needles stuck in feet
could not walk around
In some cases, runestones engraved with magical incantations
bind body to grave
prevent draug from rising
Eastern Europe - Vampires
In some instances, vampires considered type of draugar
Resistance to idea for various reasons most important
great antiquity of creatures similar to vampires (drinkers of blood) in many cultures around world
Western cultural contexts – vampires
product of Eastern European folklore
In eastern European countries, notably Romania
vampires believed to be people
possessed by evil spirits
who had potential to rise from grave after death
Reanimated/reborn creatures believed to return from dead to harm living
Fear of vampires in Eastern Europe
inspired by same fear responsible for witch trials across Europe and North America
Fear of vampires and fear of witches
fear of unknown and concern for Christian souls’ fate
15th century Europeans
worries about how person’s life shaped destiny of soul after death
For example
being born out of wedlock, not being baptized, being born with teeth, or with physical deformity
all damn person and pollute their soul
cause ‘unclean’ soul trapped in body to remain in world of living rather than travel to heaven
Solution to prevent deceased’s soul’s continued existence in land of living
bury person with objects to ward off evil (apotropaics)
Like iron scissors buried with draugar objects
e.g., sickle blades, heavy stones
placed across throat or in mouth of corpse
prevent deceased from rising from grave
Debate about origin of vampire in Eastern Europe – 2 dominant explanations
First explanation
existence of blood-drinking entities in Slavic mythology called strigoi
Concept of strigoi is very old possibly dating back to Iron Age people (the Dacians)
Different concepts of strigoi all possess evil souls
Belief in strigoi
fever pitch in 17th century Eastern Europe
Slavic mythology there are 2 different forms of strigoi
strigoi viu and strigoi mort
Strigoi viu
cursed individuals
the living strigoi
recognized based on sign at birth
unusual physical feature/deformity (e.g., red hair, large birthmark, birth defect [cleft palate, extra digits])
7th child of same sex born to parents thought to be strigoi
People feared strigoi viu as oddities
believed to possess magical abilities that could cause harm
debate to whether such children killed right away or allowed to live
Whenever they died, carefully handled and buried
fear of rising from graves as strigoi mort
Strigoi mort
cursed spirits
risen from grave
eventually regain human form
Strigoi mort origins – vague – except for strigoi viu
Whether all strigoi mort are initially strigoi viu is not clear in folk tales
Slavic mythology
strigoi mort rise from grave a spirit to visit loved ones
Return to family home and wreak havoc
moving objects, making loud noises, and hurting people (e.g., pushing, pinching, tripping, pulling hair)
About 1 week after rising from grave, strigoi mort assumes original physical form and no longer just a spirit
Strigoi mort had to return to gravesites every night or perish
How they perished isn’t clearly explained (possibly sunlight)
Strigoi
possessed special powers
invisibility, lycanthropy (change into animal form), draining energy (possibly life force?) from victims
not always described as blood drinkers
One theory
idea of blood (as source of life)
developed later
Strigoi mort were thought to be immortal unless killed in specific ways
Like draugar, strigoi mort
exhumed from graves during day, decapitated, and burned to ash
Believed strigoi mort that survived for 7 years
no longer tied to grave/could leave it forever
Different form of strigoi
considered mortal (moroi)
only lived normal human lifespan
eventually die (including of old age)
Second explanation is based on existence of historical figure
Vlad II of the House of Drăculești in Romania
Also known as “Vlad the Impaler”
Earliest description of creature like a vampire in Old Russian text (AD 1047)
Term ‘vampire’ first appears in print in 1725
concerns exhumation, staking, and burning of body that was terrorizing village
Creatures like vampires exist in many cultures
Sekhmet
Egyptian feline warrior goddess of healing and disease
father (the sun god, Ra) sent her to earth to punish humankind for disobedience
As Sekhmet slaughtered people, insatiably drank their blood
Philippines: manananggal
shape-shifting creature
turns into woman
sucks blood from bellies of pregnant women
Bram Stoker, author of Dracula
put legend of vampire “on the map”
combined strigoi with stories of Vlad the Impaler
Whether Stoker based Count Dracula on Vlad the Impaler is debated
Vlad II was born in Transylvania to wealthy, aristocratic family
as adult ruled Walachia in Romania at various points in time between 1448 – 1477
devout Christian and staunch opponent of Ottoman Empire
brilliant military strategist
renowned for horrible cruelty
Moniker “Vlad the Impaler” derived from legends
Vlad’s penchant for impaling dead
For example
Ottomans sent diplomats to demand tribute from Vlad
nailed their turbans to their heads
returned bodies
Also said to impale his dead victims on wooden stakes
warning to foes
Tales detailing practice of dipping bread into blood of enemies before eating it
Characteristics and powers of vampires vary
seems to be some consistency
Vampires:
could only exist at night (sunlight could kill them).
had fangs and drank human blood to sustain themselves.
had power of lycanthropy - could turn themselves in to wolves, bats, and sometimes rats.
were very strong.
possessed special charisma that could mesmerize people.
some versions - had no shadow and had no reflection in mirror
In Middle Ages, many superstitions surrounded actual biological and psychological symptoms of diseases
Some may have contributed to creation of vampire
One example
bubonic plague (“Black Death”)
decimating Europe at the time
People with plague often suffered from mouth lesions
bleed causing them to spit up blood or have blood on lips
Other examples – pellagra, porphyria
Pellagra
dietary deficiency
results from corn-heavy diets
extreme skin sensitivity to sunlight
However, corn not part of European diet until after contact with Indigenous peoples of Americas
Porphyria – blood disease
sufferers cannot be exposed to direct sunlight
causes skin blisters
also experienced hallucinations
had receding gums (gave impression of elongated teeth)
Extreme cases
light sensitivity so severe
could suffer from deformed ears and noses or lose them completely
Some symptoms of porphyria argued to be relieved by ingesting blood
Fourth possible illness – rabies
dramatic and lethal disease
includes symptoms, such as insomnia, hallucinations, paralysis, and aversion to light and water
eventually causes loss of bodily control, including painful muscle spasms
perhaps mimicking twisting of victim of lycanthropy (like turning into werewolf)
excessive salivation
lead to associations with animals (e.g., dogs, wolves)
Bite from wolf, dog, or bat - transmit rabies
may have also contributed to connection between rabies and vampirism
Individual afflicted with rabies slip into coma and may have appeared as living dead person
What happens to dead body supported belief in vampires
Pressure builds up in corpse during decomposition
potential to push corpse’s fluids into mouth and nose (also known as “purge fluid”)
creating illusion of creature that drinks/drank blood
Corpse’s skin eventually shrinks in size during decomposition
gives illusion that teeth/nails have grown longer
Concepts of killing vampire
stake through heart, exposure to sunlight, splashing with holy water
collectively draw inspiration from early ideas
Real practices observed in Eastern European burials
driving stake through suspected vampire’s corpse, placing sickle blade or heavy stone in mouth/across neck/on chest
prevent it from rising from grave
Decapitation and burning of corpses
Haitian Zombies