Renaissance Connections and Ottoman Expansion: Mehmed II and Selim I
Mehmed II: The Renaissance Ruler
Intellectual Acumen and Interests:
Considered the most learned Ottoman ruler of his time.
Fluent in multiple languages and well-informed about global affairs.
Deeply interested in ancient knowledge; his favorite pastime was reading Greek and Latin classics.
Patronage of Learning and Arts:
Commissioned geographers to create large-scale world maps, reflecting a desire to understand the global landscape.
Invited scholars from across the world, including the renowned astronomer and mathematician Ali Khushri from the East.
Attempted to lure a Sufi philosopher to his court, offering gold equivalent to the philosopher's weight, though the offer was respectfully declined.
Became the largest patron of learning of his era, attracting numerous scientists, artists, and literary figures to his court.
Connections with European Renaissance Figures:
Maintained relations with other learned men, notably Lorenzo de Medici, a significant patron of the Italian Renaissance.
Image and Fame in the Renaissance Context:
Conscious of his own image and sought fame.
Jacob Burckhardt, a 19th-century Swiss historian and 'godfather' of Renaissance historiography, identifies the pursuit of fame as a key trait of Renaissance/modern man.
Burckhardt contrasts this with ancient and medieval cultures, where fame was considered a vice, emphasizing modesty and humility.
Renaissance men desired to be depicted in art, mentioned in poetry and writings, and commemorated through busts and statues.
Mehmed II exemplified this Renaissance characteristic, actively seeking recognition.
Commissioning European Artists and Medallions:
Invited Italian painters, most notably Gentile Bellini, to portray him. One such painting is housed in the Topkapi Museum.
Commissioned a series of large medallions:
One side featured Ottoman symbols and script.
The other side included Latin script, proclaiming him as 'Caliph of Muslims,' 'exalted ruler of two seas,' and 'Caesar.'
This explicitly linked him to Roman legitimacy, asserting his identity as a Roman Emperor.
These medallions were circulated in Europe, aimed at publicizing his claims and potentially supporting his expansionist intentions.
Portrait Analysis:
The portrait often depicts him wearing a simple fur, lacking a grand crown or opulent ornaments.
The six 'counts' or symbols on the portrait are interpreted by some historians as representing the six major kingdoms he conquered, or alternatively, his six ancestors, making him the seventh in line.
This 'humble' yet regal attire suggests an appeal to multiple audiences, appearing relatable to both Ottoman (Tukmod) and Roman perspectives.
The Plight of Cem Sultan
Exile and European Captivity:
After losing to his brother Bayezid II, Cem sought refuge, initially with the Mamluks, then the Knights of Rhodes.
He was subsequently transferred to France and eventually placed under the custody of the Pope in Rome.
European powers (Rhodes, Mamluks, French, Pope) viewed Cem as a valuable political tool, hoping to leverage him against Bayezid II, potentially for a new Crusade.
Bayezid II's Strategy:
Bayezid II paid exorbitant amounts to various European entities to ensure Cem remained imprisoned, preventing his release which would have posed a continuous threat to his rule.
This arrangement was complex; while keeping his brother captive, Bayezid also provided substantial funds for Cem's comfort, maintaining a façade of family honor and competency on an international stage.
Bayezid sent annual delegations from Istanbul with gold to inspect Cem's well-being, ensuring he was alive and cared for.
Cem as a European Spectacle:
Cem's presence in Europe was a novelty, as Europeans, generally unaccustomed to cultural diversity, had rarely seen Ottomans or 'Saracens.'
He became a center of attention in various French and Italian courts, with people observing his manners, eating habits, and attire.
His distinct fashion even sparked new trends in France.
Cem reportedly engaged in public debates with the Pope in the Vatican, even studying Christianity beforehand. These debates, after hours of discussion, remained inconclusive.
Popular history also suggests he had numerous romantic affairs in France.
A few centuries later, an Ottoman minister humorously suggested to French correspondents during treaty negotiations that they might be cousins, hinting at Cem's potential offspring with a French monarch.
Suspected Assassination:
One delegation from Istanbul controversially included a barber, leading to suspicions that Cem was poisoned during a haircut, allegedly using a poisoned blade.
His subsequent death in , under mysterious circumstances during a transfer, allowed Bayezid to solidify his rule.
Political Implications of Exile:
The continuous payment for Cem's upkeep was a strategic cost to prevent his release and the chaos it might unleash.
This practice of rival claimants seeking refuge in opposing empires was not uncommon (e.g., Safavid contenders in Ottoman lands, Ottoman contenders in Safavid lands).
Even later, during Suleiman's reign, one of his sons who fled to the Safavid court led to annual payments of $300,000 ducats to the Safavids, not necessarily due to a real threat but for stability and to prevent potential future issues.
Cem's name later became a pejorative term () for certain groups within the Ottoman Empire.
Cem's death immediately emboldened Bayezid II, allowing him to launch campaigns, such as against the Venetians, albeit without significant territorial gains.
Selim I's Campaigns: Egyptian Conquest and Portuguese Threat
Egyptian Campaign ():
Selim I's second major campaign, following his defeat of the Safavids.
In , Syria was conquered, and a year later, Egypt was taken.
This significantly expanded the Ottoman Empire, incorporating all Arab lands from modern Iraq to Libya.
The Ottoman Empire transitioned from primarily being a Balkan state to a formidable Asian and African power, integrating much of the former Abbasid heartland.
Reasons for Conflict with the Mamluks:
Cultural Connections: Despite military conflicts, there were strong cultural ties. Many leading Ottoman scholars and Sufis received education in Mamluk domains (Cairo, Damascus, Aleppo, Alexandria) and vice versa, with extensive trade relations.
Mamluk-Safavid Alliance: A primary military reason was the Mamluk cooperation with the Safavids against the Ottomans, which necessitated securing the Ottoman southern borders.
The Rising Danger of Portuguese Colonialism: This was the most crucial reason.
In the late and early centuries, Portuguese explorers established naval routes to the Indian Ocean, aiming to monopolize its lucrative trade.
This posed a direct threat to the Ottoman Empire's economic well-being, as a significant portion of its trade originated from the Indian Ocean.
Bombing of Jeddah: The Portuguese bombed Jeddah, a city very close to Mecca, demonstrating their intent to capture the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and eradicate Islamic sites.
The Portuguese (and Spanish) justified their colonial expansionism with the motives of 'gold, glory, and God,' portraying their actions as a divine mission to defeat 'infidels.'
Mamluk Failure: Selim I realized the Mamluks, despite their title as '$Khadig_al-Haramayn$' (Protectors of the Two Holy Sanctuaries), were failing to protect these vital territories, creating an opportunity for Ottoman intervention.
The Transfer of the Caliphate:
The last Abbasid Caliph, who resided in Cairo after the fall of Baghdad, was taken to Istanbul by Selim I. He was given a place to live and a generous pension, essentially becoming a spiritual authority in exile.
Selim also transported all the sacred relics () associated with the Abbasid Caliphate to Istanbul.
These relics included:
The earliest written copy of the Quran.
The sword of Caliph Ali.
Swords of other prophets (e.g., David, Solomon).
A garment or cloak of Prophet Muhammad himself.
A specimen from the Prophet's beard.
These relics were deposited in the Topkapi Palace, where they remain.
Reframing of History: While -century sources do not corroborate a formal transfer, later Ottoman historians (from the century onwards) crafted an elaborate narrative. This story claimed that the Abbasid Caliph in Cairo publicly crowned Selim I as the new Caliph of the Muslim world in the main mosque of Cairo, establishing Selim as the first Ottoman Caliph in addition to being Sultan. This narrative, though historically unverified, became a foundational myth for the Ottoman Caliphate. Previous Mongol rulers who destroyed Baghdad were Muslim (e.g., Hulagu's son, Tulaga) but did not assume the Caliphate.