Water terms

desalination - conversion of salt water to fresh water by extracting dissolved salts

evapotranspiration - combined process of evaporation and transpiration of water from the biosphere to the atmosphere

potable water - water that is free from impurities/pollution/bacteria and so is safe to drink

water-scarce area - a region where water supply falls below 1000 cubic metres per person per year

water-stressed area - a region where water supply falls below 1700 cubic metres per person per year

virtual water - the amount of water used to produce a commodity and is therefore embedded in them, water you don’t pay for or see effectively

water footprint - the volume of fresh water an individual uses directly and in the production of good and services they consume

physical water scarcity - when physical access to water in a region is limited, demand outstrips a regions ability to provide water needed for the population

economic water scarcity - when a population doesn’t have the monetary means to utilise an adequate water source

blue water - precipitation that collects in lakes, rivers, reservoirs, wetlands etc as groundwater, available for human use before it is evaporated or salivated in oceans

green water - part of total precipitation that is absorbed by soil and plants and then released back into the atmosphere

aquifer - a permeable rock which stores groundwater

grey water - water which has been used for one purpose and can be used for another

water table - the top of the water saturated part of a permeable rock, rises and falls according to precipitation and saturation of ground

groundwater - water found below the surface which has not been combined chemically with any minerals present, found in pores underground

maximum sustainable yield - the most water that can be taken from a river basin system before soil/aquifers need a recharge and negative impacts are felt eg crop failure

Natural resource issues

Water availability and consumption

distribution - varied and unequal

availability - Europe, Asia and Africa have a larger population % then water supply; Asia has the largest population % (60%) and largest water supply (36%); South America has lots of surplus water (6% of population reside here and they have the second largest % of water - 76%)

accessibility - poorest LICs have most people without access to safe water - over 6x uk population; developed countries have better access to water

consumption - sporadic worldwide, Central Asia, North America, and Australia consume the most amount of water annually (over 1000 cubic metres in 2015); sub-saharan Africa consumes the least (less than 100 cubic square metres annually)

global water consumption

agriculture 70%

industrial 22%

domestic 8%

LIC/MIC consumption

agriculture 82%

industrial 10%

domestic 8%

HIC consumption

agriculture 30%

industrial 59%

domestic 11%

Geopolitics

hydro-political tensions occur when multiple countries overlap drainage basins, share aquifers, and share rivers (upstream vs downstream tensions). potential conflict hotspots are likely to occur at aquifers where 200 are transboundary, and at river basins where 276 are transboundary. Egypt and Ethiopia are a prime example of the upstream vs downstream conflict, as well as Mexico City relying on the Colorado River as it’s main water source. progress can be seen where transboundary cooperation had improved, especially since the ‘Berlin Rules on Water Sources’ convention in 2004.

Water Security

issues and causes of water insecurity

issues

• terrorism

• multiple countries share water sources - can lead to weaponisation

• privatisation making water access a privilege

• conflict/water wars

• in LICs women are most likely to collect water - miss out on education and work

• rising population

causes

• meat based diets - huge water consumption to produce meat

• rising population and prosperity increase demands

• drought increases demand - drought often caused by extreme weather and is now more frequent due to climate change

• water is treated as a global common but it is over-exploited = tragedy of the commons

improved drinking water - source of water that is protected form contamination through intervening treatment

potable water - water suitable for drinking

safe drinking water - water that is suitable fro human consumption and free from pollutants/bacteria

water stress - demand exceeds availability

water surplus - availability exceeds demand, supply is sufficient for human demand

WHO

• 10% of global population lack access to drinking water = water as a human right is still unaccessible

• 2 billion people drink from water sources contaminated with faeces = lack of technology and management of water, especially in LICs

• by 2025 half of the worlds population will be living in water stressed areas = there is a lack of action

UN

• recognised accessibility to water as human right (sustainable development goal 6)

• said water supplies must be safe, accessible, acceptable, and affordable

Sources and Stress

water stress is measured by quantity (abstraction vs over-abstraction) and quality (pollution of water sources).

sources

• surface water- river/reservoir

• underground water - aquifers

• seawater - after desalination

reservoirs

factors of suitability - topography (narrow and steep sided basin = large volume relative to surface area); geology (impermeable rock to prevent loss, stable rock to withstand tectonic activity, avoid areas with minerals of economic value); catchment area (large = more volume); climate (sustainable and reliable supply of precipitation, cooler climate = less evaporation)

benefits of reservoirs - flood control; stored water supply for all use; multi-purpose (HEP generation, recreation, fishing)

negative impacts of reservoirs - removes habitats; interrupts migration and seed dispersal; sedimentation reduces reservoir capacity and increases erosive powers downstream of the river

components of demand

• agriculture - irrigation

• domestic/municipal - drinking, washing, cleaning, food prep, sanitation, personal hygiene

• industry/commercial - coolant in electricity generation, heating, transport, textiles and paper manufacturing, food, construction

most extreme sufferers of water stress - Middle East and Sub Saharan Africa

medium sufferers of water stress - Philippines and Australia

factors contributing to water insecurity - quality and quantity

human

• inefficient irrigation - agriculture

• population rise and density

• water treatment and management

• industrialisation

• leaks in infrastructure

• pollution

• change in diet - americanised = more meat consumption

• new crop demands

• water pollution

• supply management

• over abstraction

• usage types

• increasing demand

physical

• geological storage ability - permeability, aquifers, valleys, depressions

• low temperatures = frozen and inaccessible sources

• hot weather = low precipitation and high evaporation = decreased stores

• flooding due to extreme weather = water pollution

• drought

• evaporation rates

• vegetation decay

• unreliable annual rainfall and intensity

water management

why is it needed?

• due to uneven distribution of water

• increased demand in growing urban areas

• unsustainable uses

• increased pollution and contamination

• privatisation and privilege

increasing water supply and sustainable water management

catchment management

• increasing abstraction to increase availability

• use water in more efficient ways to reduce waste

• abstraction licensing strategies to manage water supply and assess availibility for abstraction

• Energy Efficiency Index (EEI) to assess if river flows can sustain healthy ecology

storage - groundwater and reservoir management

• increase and manage water supply regionally and nationally

• dams trap water and maintain habitats

  • can prevent flooding

• reservoirs fill from rainfall or river pumping

• provide flood control, fishing and tourism facilities BUT environmentally damaging

diversion and inter-basin transfer in the UK

• methods of transportation

• occur when one region is in surplus and another is in deficit

• water is abstracted form the surplus region’s stores and trasnferred by pipes to quickly deal with drought

diversion and inter-basin transfer in China

• built worlds largest transfer system

• south to north diversion project has 3 routes

  • Yangtze basin northwards by canal and pipeline to treatment plants near Beijing with severe shortages

  • Eastern route uses the Grand Canal

  • central route was opened in 2014 and takes water 1500km from Danjiangkou reservoir on a tributary of the Yangtze River supplying 2/3 of Beijing’s tap water

• :)

  • quick drought recovery

  • habitats protected

  • addresses uneven distribution

• :(

  • high running costs

desalination

• removal of salt water from sea water to increase freshwater supply

• unsustainable

  • uses lots of energy

  • high ghg emissions

• reverse osmosis

  • filtration of sea water through partially permeable membrane to create potable water and a saline byproduct

• distillation

  • water boiled at reduced pressure so less energy is required

  • steam is collected and condensed into water

decreasing demand and creating sustainable consumption

domestic/industrial/commercial consumption strategies

• monitor water usage with water meter - most effective domestic monitoring

  • pay as you use

  • encourage people to use less water as then it means they will have a lower bill

• south England = water stressed

  • new buildings to conserve and reuse water

• 30% water used by flushing

agricultural consumption reduction strategies

• efficient irrigation reduces evaporation and runoff, decreasing consumption

  • drip seed irrigation

  • soaker hose

  • micro sprayer

  • overhead sprinkler

land use, ecological and afforestation

• increase permeable land to increase percolation and infiltration = increased groundwater supply

• afforestation is good for conservation and to increase bio store

recycling, grey water, leakage control, rainwater collection

• grey water - resued water for other domestic uses

  • can be costly and use additional energy

  • recycle - shower water to water garden plants

• rainwater can be used for washing and cleaning

• desalination cannot be done for landlocked countries eg afghanistan

• reduce pipe leakage

• countries with water shortages can partake in trade of high virtual water items such as rice and cotton, and specialise in a less water consuming industry

• create more reservoirs to collect water in wet seasons - potential to lose water through evapotranspiration

• drip irrigation - targeted irrigation directly to plants stem

• cloud seeding - some experiments have been done to release chemicals into the atmosphere and stimulate precipitation

WaterAid and composting latrines

• UK based NGO

  • success dependent on interconnected factors

  • limiting over-abstraction of groundwater

  • use composting toilets and urine reuse

  • urine is a good fertiliser

  • composting latrines provide faeces for crops

water conflicts

why?

demand and conflict is growing due to increased population demand, industry growth, agricultural demand, economic and environmental pressures, yet the supply is diminishing due to upstream pollution and over-abstraction, inefficient use, and climate change.

types of conflict

international - transnational basins, upstream vs downstream

national - between states and regions

local - conservation vs exploitation

international

The Nile - Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia

background info

• the nile is the worlds longest river (6200km) and has 2 sources (White Nile and Blue Nile)

• 11 states in the Nile’s river basin rely on it for water

• Egypt relies on Nile for 95% of water

involved

• Ethiopia - only recently gained political and financial strength; keen to develop

• Sudan

• Egypt

• GERD - Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam

conflict

• Nile was governed by colonial treaty and then later a treaty between Egypt and Sudan leaving nearly all the water to them (1929)

  • 48 billion cubic metres to Egypt

  • 4 billion cubic metres to Sudan

  • remaining 14% to other countries

• this treaty was renewed in 1959 ‘Nile Waters Agreement’

  • 55.5 billion cubic metres to Egypt

  • 18.5 billion cubic metres to Sudan

  • nothing for anyone else

• Ethiopia refused to recognise this treaty and in 2011 claimed it’s rights to the water and challenged the treaty, they announced construction of a large dam (the GERD) on the Blue Nile

• Egypt opposed the dam

• in 2015 they tried to come to an agreement but it is yet to be resolved

• US report said the GERD could restrict 25% of Egypts flow

• unfair management and distribution has lead to this conflict

responses/solutions

• Nile Basin Initiative (1990) to help water distribution

  • 9/10 of the countries in the basin are involved

  • little achieved in overturning the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement

• in 2010, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda signed a new water treaty stating all riparian countries should have equal access to the Nile waters, they urged Egypt and Sudan to sign

key facts and figures

• GERD produces 6000 megawatts of electricity (double Ethiopias current output)

• 300million people live in the Nile Basin (expected to double by 2030)

human causes

• weaponisation of downstream vs upstream

• power imbalance = unfair distribution

physical causes

• transboundary river basin

• source is in one country

• hot climate = drought and evaporation means key reliability on the Nile

national

Israel and Palestine

background info

• arid climate

• water signifcant for agriculture irrigation and domestic use

• ongiong political and religious conflicts

• River Jordan and mountain aquifer = key water sources

involved

• israel and palestine

• river jordan on the gaza strip = densely populated

• mountain aquifer is on palestine territory (the West Bank)

conflict

• growing population share the resources causing increased tensions over availability and water uses

• access to the water is used as a weapon

• the River Jordan runs dry annually due to Israels command of the Sea of Galilee

• the West Bank is controlled by Israel who built settlements on Palestine territory this means they exploit the mountain aquifer using 80% and leave 20% for Palestine

• Palestinian farmers have insufficient water for irrigation

• Israel can afford desalination

responses/solutions

• 1998 Jordan Water Strategy - to fit rooftop tanks as water storage and treat waste water for irrigation

  • 90% of the population now have access to mains and sanitation systems

  • still infrequent and overexploited supplies

• Israel invest in desalination

  • 50% of their water now comes from these plants

• cross-boundary agreements

  • Israel and the West Bank = Joint Water Committee 1995

    • to settle peace and improve water supply on the West Bank

    • little achieved

  • Red Sea-Dead Sea Water Conveyance Project

    • to build water transfer tunnels and allow for desalination and HEP generation

    • took 20 years to complete and lots of environmental damage

key facts and figures

• 1.4 million on Gaza Strip

• 7 million in Jordan River Basin

• 45% of land used for agriculture so a reliable water supply is essential

• 1998-2012 = severe drought reduced crop yields

• water diversion means river has lost 95% of flow

local

Petorca, Chile

background info

• petorca is the epicentre of water conflicts in chile

• key avocado growing region

• rising avocado demand has worsened water demand in the area

involved

• large commercial producers - avocado farmers

• local farmers

• Amnesty International - help fight legal battles for locals

conflict

• water is treated as a commodity in this region enabling commercial companies to request rights to more access - allocated by government

• conflicts arise between agriculture and mining for access to water

  • mining companies are richer so can pay more

  • this means water is often diverted from farms

• campaigners argues that commercial producers were committing water theft and using more than their allocation via illegal underground pipes

• farmers have to rely on the drying out river and water delivery to irrigate crops

• avocados have a high export value

facts and figures

• 1sqm of avocado plants needs 10,000L of water daily to grow sufficiently

  • this equals the consumption needs of 1,000 people

• 1kg of avocados uses 2000L of water

• this region is the 3rd largest exporter of avocados

• water was privatised here in the 1980s

Future of water resources

potential conflict causes

scarcity - conflicts over access and management

transboundary water sources could lead to dispute over rights to water (upstream vs downstream)

power vs people - people campaigning for rights and climate change action vs TNCs and money makers

• is water more important for commodity use or domestic use

potential sustainability causes

cyclical usage and recycling

transboundary agreements

value put on water (remove it as a global common) so people and businesses understand it’s value and more even distribution occurs

SEEP

social - technological advances

recycling, purification, and desalination

osmotic distillation

electrodialysis - alternative desalination method

saltwater greenhouse technology - arid climates, cooling and humidification tech

plastic solar stills - distill water on small scales

economic

water is becoming more valuable than as its supply dwindles so trading will become more evident

virtual water trade

environment

improved water quality - EIA

future-proofing river basin management strategies

political - national and global gov scale

monitoring and encouraging cooperation in hotspots of conflict

sustainable development goals - goal 6 ‘ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’ and goal 12 ‘ensure safe management of chemicals and waste - reduction of entrance into water’

Aswan Dam - increasing water supply

background info

• 1970s

• cost $1billion

• in Egypt

• water insecure

  • edge of saharan desert

  • 80mm annual rainfall

  • water scarce

    • 770m2 per person

• water supply

  • River Nile takes water from highland Ethiopia (blue and white Nile)

  • 11 countries compete for the water resource

  • seasonal variation

  • high evaporation rate

  • pollution from run off and lack of regulations

• demand in egypt

  • 85million pop

  • 80% agriculture

  • 14% industry

  • 2% maintaining levels for shipping

• problems

  • overabstraction of ground water

  • common water cuts and low pressure in Cairo

    • 40% without water for 3hrs a day

  • unfit qaulity of water

    • 17000 children die annually

  • unaffordable water

  • agriculture

    • 11% GDP

    • 20% employment

  • small farms can’t afford water so absorbed by TNCs

• solutions

  • 2017 national water saving plan

  • trade blocs to set fair price

  • desalination investment

    • privately owned = power?

  • UNICEF loans to rural families to connect them to water sources

geopolitics

• Nile basin supplies 11 countries

• Egypt near mouth

• other countries dam the river reducing it’s flow

• water treaty’s - see GERD CS

• GERD - reduce Egypts flow to Aswan Dam

environmental impacts of Aswan Dam

• positive

  • improved agriculture

    • 81% of water

  • water source

  • 250,000 tonnes of fish

    • improved fishing industry

  • previously desert land now irrigated

  • HEP = 50% of energy mix in 1980

• negative

  • 100,000 people displaced

  • disease spread

  • coastal erosion downstream

    • need more money to manage

  • need fertilisers

  • less nutrients

  • soviet loans = debt