French rev 2
I. Pre-Revolutionary France and Early Stages (Up to Constitution of 1791)
A. French Society and Government
First Estate (The Clergy)
Comprised 130,000 people and owned approximately 10% of all land in France.
Earned revenue from "tides" (a mandatory 1/10th of salary given by all French citizens).
Paid no taxes and played a crucial role in education, record-keeping (births, deaths, marriages), and providing aid/charity.
Censored publications they disapproved of.
Divisions within the First Estate:
Local priests were generally loved by communities as they were not wealthy.
Higher clergy, often nobles appointed by the king, were perceived as wealthy and not always religious, leading to popular resentment over how "tide" funds were used.
Second Estate (The Nobility)
Comprised 350,000 people and owned between 25-30% of the land.
Enjoyed numerous special privileges, including exemption from most taxes.
Entitled to collect taxes and fees from those living on their land.
Held significant political influence, with many serving as advisors to the king.
Wealth Disparity:
Not all nobles were wealthy; about half were poor.
This meant most wealth and political power were concentrated in a very small circle.
Poorer nobles relied heavily on collecting taxes and asserting their power over peasants.
Nobility of the Sword vs. Nobility of the Robe:
Nobility of the Sword: Old lineage nobles, tracing ancestry back to the early Middle Ages.
Nobility of the Robe: Obtained noble titles from the king, often through purchase.
Third Estate (The Commoners)
Composed of three main subgroups:
Peasants: Deeply resented the nobility due to forced fees and taxes.
Skilled Artisans/Workers: Faced hard lives, sharing resources and paying taxes.
Bourgeoisie: Well-educated lawyers, doctors, merchants, and other professionals. They often purchased positions, paying an annual tax to keep the position for life, which would then be passed down.
Louis XVI as Leader
Louis XVI was not well-suited to lead a country and lacked the requisite strategic thinking for the job.
Governing Challenges
France was a tangled mess of overlapping jurisdictions, with 32 provinces and numerous generalities, leading to confusion over administrative authority.
While the king held absolute power in theory, distant regions often acted independently.
Plutocracy: A government where the wealthiest people hold ultimate power.
Role of Parlements
Parlements were courts composed of nobles that reviewed and approved royal laws.
They could refuse to register a law, pressuring the king to make changes or provide explanations.
Despite not creating laws, they influenced politics by challenging royal power.
Economic Issues
France's prolonged wars with Great Britain were immensely expensive, leaving the country deeply in debt.
Aiding the American colonies further exacerbated the financial crisis, pushing France closer to bankruptcy.
Charles Alexandre Calonne's Proposal
As finance minister, Calonne attempted to address France’s massive debt in the 1780s.
He proposed taxing all landowners—including the nobility—and creating a fairer tax system.
His plan was rejected by the nobles, escalating France's financial troubles.
B. Key Events of 1789
Estates General (May 5, 1789, Versailles)
The king and the First and Second Estates advocated for voting by estate, giving each estate one vote. This allowed them to outvote the Third Estate two-to-one.
The Third Estate opposed this, demanding voting by head, where each individual representative had a vote, which would grant them more influence due to their larger number of delegates.
Abbe Sieyes
A French priest and political writer, he became a key figure in the early Revolution.
He argued that the Third Estate truly represented the nation and deserved political power, famously articulating these ideas in his pamphlet, What is the Third Estate?
Formation of the National Assembly and the Tennis Court Oath
On June 17, 1789, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly, asserting authority to make laws for France.
Locked out of their meeting hall, they gathered at an indoor tennis court, taking the Tennis Court Oath, vowing not to disperse until a new constitution was written.
Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)
Parisians feared the king was deploying troops to suppress the National Assembly and the Revolution.
They also sought gunpowder and weapons for defense.
The Bastille, a prison and royal fortress, symbolized the king's absolute power; its attack signaled the people's readiness to fight for their rights.
The Great Fear
A wave of panic swept through the French countryside in 1789, as peasants feared nobles were plotting to crush the revolution.
In response, peasants rebelled, attacking manor houses and destroying records of feudal dues.
C. Early Reforms and Growing Discontent
Abolition of Feudalism (August 4, 1789)
The National Assembly voted to abolish feudalism, ending nobles’ special privileges and traditional feudal dues owed by peasants.
This marked a fundamental break from the old social order, moving toward equality under the law.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789)
This document, adopted by the National Assembly, outlined fundamental rights and freedoms for all French citizens, including liberty, equality, and protection under the law.
It left critical questions unanswered, such as whether these rights applied to women, enslaved people, and the poor, and how they would be implemented.
Emergence of Political Factions
Radicals: Advocated for major changes and full equality.
Moderates: Desired some reforms but opposed drastic changes.
Conservatives: Sought to retain many traditional structures and limit changes.
The Jacobin Club
A powerful political group dominated by radical revolutionaries, pushing for sweeping governmental and societal changes.
Became one of the Revolution's most influential organizations, instrumental in founding the republic and leading the Reign of Terror.
The King's Suspending Veto
Louis XVI held the power to delay laws passed by the Assembly for up to four years.
The people of Paris reacted angrily, perceiving it as an attempt to halt the Revolution, fueling distrust and unrest.
Active vs. Passive Citizens
Active Citizens: Men over 25 who paid a specified amount of taxes, granting them voting rights and eligibility for office.
Passive Citizens: Included poor men and all women, considered citizens but denied voting rights or governmental participation.
Olympe de Gouges
A French playwright and political activist who championed women’s rights during the Revolution.
Known for authoring the “Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen,” challenging leaders to extend equal rights to women.
Confiscation of Church Lands
The Assembly resolved to confiscate all land owned by the clergy, declaring it national property.
This aimed to alleviate France’s massive national debt and diminish the Church’s economic and political power.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790)
A law that placed the Catholic Church in France under state control, requiring clergy to be elected and swear loyalty to the government.
Considered a misstep because it alienated many devout Catholics, divided the clergy, and fueled resistance, particularly in rural areas.
D. The Constitution of 1791 and the King's Flight
The King's Attempted Flight
In 1791, the king and his family attempted to flee Paris, feeling threatened by the Revolution and hoping to reach a royalist stronghold to regain authority.
This event, known as the Flight to Varennes, severely damaged Louis XVI’s reputation, branding him as untrustworthy and a traitor to the Revolution.
Disbanding of the National Assembly
When the National Assembly disbanded in 1791, its members ratified the new Constitution of 1791.
This constitution established a constitutional monarchy with a limited king, a legislative assembly, and voting rights for active citizens.
The Assembly also agreed to cede its revolutionary authority, transferring power to the new government.
II. The Legislative Assembly, War, and the Fall of the Monarchy (1791-1792)
A. Rise of the Legislative Assembly
The National Assembly was replaced by the Legislative Assembly in 1791.
Immediate threat of war with neighboring European monarchies due to fears that the French Revolution would inspire uprisings in their own countries.
B. External Threats and the Declaration of War
Declaration of Pillnitz
A statement by Austria and Prussia expressing support for Louis XVI and warning of potential military intervention to restore his full power.
Intended to intimidate French revolutionaries but instead increased tensions and pushed France closer to war.
Supporters' Response to the Declaration
After the Declaration, supporters of the Revolution feared foreign monarchies would invade to restore the king's power.
This fear intensified calls for war as a means to defend the Revolution and spread its ideals.
The Girondists
A moderate revolutionary group within the Legislative Assembly.
Supported war against Austria and Prussia to defend the Revolution and disseminate its ideas abroad.
Their main spokesman, Jacques-Pierre Brissot, advocated for an aggressive foreign policy to protect France and promote revolutionary principles.
The Jacobins and Robespierre
Maximilien Robespierre led the Jacobins, a radical revolutionary faction.
They did not fully endorse the Girondists’ call for war, fearing it might strengthen the king and moderate forces at home.
Louis XVI opposed the revolutionary goals of both factions but especially feared the Jacobins, who sought to limit his power and ultimately overthrow the monarchy.
Declaration of War
On April 20, 1792, France declared war on Austria, initiating the French Revolutionary Wars as leaders aimed to defend France and spread revolutionary ideas.
Initial French Defeats
The war initially went poorly for France, with armies suffering defeats and retreats against Austria and its allies.
This led many to suspect internal enemies, including royalists and counter-revolutionaries, were sabotaging France from within.
C. Escalation of Internal Conflict and End of Monarchy
The Brunswick Manifesto
Issued by Prussia and Austria, threatening severe punishment against Paris and its citizens if the French royal family were harmed.
Rather than intimidating revolutionaries, it fueled anger and distrust of the king, who many believed was colluding with foreign powers.
Storming of the Tuileries Palace (August 20, 1792)
Revolutionary forces, including the Parisian National Guard and radical sans-culottes, stormed the palace.
This event effectively overthrew the monarchy’s authority, ending Louis XVI’s reign and leading to his imprisonment.
III. The National Convention and the Radical Phase (1792-1794)
A. Establishment of the National Convention
The Legislative Assembly was replaced by the National Convention in September 1792.
Voting for delegates became more democratic, as all male citizens, not just tax-paying active citizens, could vote, expanding political participation.
B. Rise of Radicalism
The Paris Commune
A radical revolutionary government in Paris, primarily composed of sans-culottes.
They arrested and executed suspected counter-revolutionaries, often without trial, during events like the September Massacres of 1792.
The September Massacres
A series of mass killings of prisoners in Paris by revolutionary mobs who feared that clergy and royalist prisoners would join foreign armies or counter-revolutionary forces.
Over 1,000 people were killed in a few days, underscoring the Revolution's increasing radicalism and violence.
Jean-Paul Marat
A radical journalist and politician noted for his incendiary writings in “L’Ami du peuple” (“The Friend of the People”).
Advocated for the rights of the poor and demanded harsh measures against perceived enemies of the Revolution.
Girondists vs. The Mob
The Girondists feared the Parisian mob, particularly the radical sans-culottes, would gain excessive power and push the Revolution to extremes.
They aimed to limit the mob's influence and maintain a more moderate government.
However, the mob successfully stormed the Tuileries in August 1792, forcing the king's arrest and enabling radicals like the Jacobins to seize control, leading to the Girondists' downfall.
C. Execution of Louis XVI and European Response
Louis XVI was tried for treason, found guilty, and executed by guillotine on January 21, 1793.
His execution outraged many European monarchies, prompting countries like Austria, Prussia, and Britain to form coalitions against revolutionary France, thereby intensifying the wars in Europe.
D. Challenges to the Revolution
Resistance to the Draft
The revolutionary government’s call for a draft in 1793 met violent resistance in rural regions, especially western France, where it was seen as an attack on local traditions and religion.
The Catholic and Royal Army
Formed by royalist and Catholic insurgents in response to the draft.
This counter-revolutionary force fought against the revolutionary government in the War in the Vendée.
E. The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
Creation of the Committee of Public Safety
Established in 1793 to protect the French Revolution from internal and external enemies and to manage the government during a period of crisis (war, rebellion, economic problems).
It quickly became the central authority for enforcing revolutionary policies, including the Reign of Terror.
Assassination of Marat (July 1793)
Jean-Paul Marat was assassinated in his bathtub by Charlotte Corday, a Girondist supporter hoping to curb Marat’s and the Jacobins’ radical influence.
His death made him a martyr for the Revolution, intensifying the Jacobins' crackdown on opponents.
The Law of the Maximum
A revolutionary decree that imposed price limits on essential goods (like food) and wages to combat inflation and ensure affordability of necessities.
It was a key radical economic policy during the Reign of Terror.
The Law of Suspects
Authorized revolutionary authorities to arrest anyone suspected of opposing the Revolution, often with minimal evidence.
This law was a primary driver of the Reign of Terror, a period where the Committee of Public Safety executed tens of thousands of perceived enemies to protect and enforce its radical goals.
The French Army's Uniqueness
The French army during the Revolution was unprecedented due to its massive numbers of citizen-soldiers, driven by patriotism and revolutionary ideals, rather than professional mercenaries or nobles.
Its size, mass mobilization through the levée en masse, and the soldiers' belief in defending the Revolution allowed France to defeat larger, professional European armies, a sight the world had not witnessed before.
Dramatic Changes by the Convention to French Society
Abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.
Executed Louis XVI and other symbols of royal authority.
Radically reorganized the calendar, creating the French Republican Calendar to break from traditional and religious norms.
Seized Church lands and reduced the Church’s power in daily life.
Promoted equality and secularism, changing street names, holidays, and public rituals to reflect revolutionary ideas.
The De-Christianization Movement
Aimed to diminish the Catholic Church's influence and replace religious traditions with revolutionary, secular ideals.
Involved closing churches, removing Christian symbols, promoting the Cult of Reason, and encouraging citizens to worship the Revolution instead of God.
The Great Terror and Fall of Robespierre
The Great Terror was the most extreme phase of the Reign of Terror, marked by intensified executions of anyone suspected of opposing the Revolution, even minor critics.
Members of the Convention turned on Robespierre because they feared he had become too powerful and unpredictable, and that they might be his next targets, leading to his arrest and execution.
IV. The Thermidorian Reaction and The Directory (1794-1799)
A. End of Radical Policies
After Robespierre's execution, most radical policies, including the Reign of Terror, were terminated or reversed.
The government shut down the courts and laws that facilitated mass executions, transitioning France toward more moderate rule by easing strict economic controls and ending extreme revolutionary measures.
B. Decline of Sans-culottes Influence
In the late summer of 1794, following Robespierre's fall in the Thermidorian Reaction, the sans-culottes attempted to advocate for continued radical reforms.
However, they swiftly lost influence as the new government suppressed them, leading to the collapse of their political power and the arrest or silencing of many leaders.
C. The Directory and the Constitution of Year III
Monarchists were individuals who sought to restore a king to power in France after the Revolution.
When monarchists demonstrated in the streets of Paris, the government dispatched troops, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, to disperse them. This crushed the protest and bolstered the new republican administration.
The Constitution of Year III (1795) established a more conservative government following the radical phase of the Revolution.
The Directory was the five-man executive body created by this constitution to govern; it was frequently weak, corrupt, and unstable.
D. Challenges to the Directory
François Noël Babeuf
A radical French revolutionary who believed in absolute equality and sought to abolish private property.
He led the “Conspiracy of Equals” in 1796, an attempted uprising against the Directory, for