European Music Principles and Traditional Styles

Introduction to European Music

Geographic Context of Europe
- Only Australia is geographically smaller than Europe among major continents.
- Western Europe Perspective in the US Education System: Typically refers to countries west of and including Italy, Austria, and Germany, along with Norway, Sweden, and Finland (Northern countries). This is the primary focus.
- Eastern and Southeastern Europe: Constitute the remaining geographical parts of Europe and are often broadly termed "Eastern Europe" to differentiate them from Central and Western Europe.
Economic Europe: The European Union (EU)
- Economically, Europe includes $27$ countries:
  - Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom (Great Britain and Northern Ireland).
  - Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia.
- Turkey's EU Application: Turkey, not geographically part of Europe, has applied for EU membership but has not yet been accepted.
Cultural Delineation: Language and Ethnicity
- Language: A primary means of distinguishing cultural backgrounds (e.g., English speakers in England, German speakers in Germany, French speakers in France).
  - Regional cultural differences are often reflected in language, with Germans, for example, able to identify someone's regional origin by their pronunciation.
- Other Significant Ethnic Groups:
  - Roma (Gypsies): Do not have a specific European nation, but are significant minorities across most European countries. Their journey originated in India, migrating westward over centuries into Western Asia, North Africa, and then Spain, and also through Turkey into Southeastern Europe. Music is a vibrant aspect of Romani culture, with many earning a living as professional musicians, adapting local traditions to create unique yet familiar sounds.
  - Jewish People: Also a significant minority group throughout Europe without a dedicated European nation state.

Ethnomusicological Categories of Music

Classical, Folk, and Popular Music: These are the primary categories used by ethnomusicologists to classify world music.
- Popular Music: In the modern sense, is strongly tied to the music business and mass media dissemination.
- Classical and Folk Music: Are considered "traditional" in world music and can be categorized based on historical class associations.
  - Classical Music: Traditionally associated with the aristocracy.
  - Folk Music: Traditionally associated with the common people.
  - Modern Validity: These class associations are not generally valid today, as both classical and folk music traditions have patrons from all social classes.
- Pedagogy as a Modern Delineator:
  - Classical Music: Characterized by formal study.
  - Folk Traditions: Learned informally.
European Art Music vs. Classical Music
- The term "classical" applies globally to many traditions, but in the European context, it specifically refers to art music.
- Art Music: Implies a high level of sophistication. It is pan-European, with similar instrumentation, performance contexts, pedagogy, and compositional techniques across the continent.
  - Many of its famous composers and performers were early international stars, performing widely across Europe.
  - Developed from both the Christian church and royal courts.
  - Its history often begins with plainchant (Gregorian chant) to illustrate its development, while secular art music depended on court support for artists and composers.
- Classical Music (period-specific): Technically refers only to a specific historical period within art music.
The Romantic Notion of "Volk" Music
- "Volk," a German term, is a romantic concept that emerged in the $18^{th}$ century with the Industrial Age.
- Meaning: Referred to peasants and their traditions, which were idealized as "pure" and "untainted" by the modern world—a myth that persists today.
- Cultural Uniqueness: The uniqueness of a culture was, and often still is, closely linked to such folk traditions, in contrast to pan-European art music or pan-global popular music.
Cultural Blending in European Folk Traditions
- Folk traditions in Spain and Southeastern Europe exhibit a unique blend of European and Arabic or Turkish cultural traits.
- Reason: This blending is a result of the historical spread of the early Islamic and Ottoman empires (e.g., Flamenco music).

Core Principles of European Music

Polyphony and Harmony
- Earliest Polyphonic Music (Art Music): Dates back to the $11^{th}$ to $13^{th}$ centuries.
- Ethnomusicological vs. Musicological Interpretation of Polyphony: Ethnomusicologists use a broader sense, while musicologists see it as a specific organizational type (e.g., counterpoint).
- European Approach: Europeans create music using polyphony of definite pitches.
  - If two vocalists sing, they will sing "in parts" on different pitches.
- Introduction of Harmony: Requires at least a third part to establish a major or minor key, necessitating an ensemble (at least three performers for vocal music).
  - More complex harmonies require larger ensembles (e.g., orchestras, choirs).
  - The introduction of varying timbres and dynamics also requires larger ensembles.
- Instrument Design: European instruments are often designed specifically for playing harmonic polyphony (e.g., the piano).
  - Others, like the Irish bagpipes, commonly perform with harmony.
  - Some instruments are designed to be played in ensembles that create harmony (e.g., string quartets).
  - A solo instrument (violin, flute, voice) is often accompanied by a piano, which adds the harmonic element.
Rhythm in European Music
- Predictability: Rhythm tends to be very predictable, largely a consequence of the emphasis on harmony.
- Harmonic Blending: For pitches to blend correctly, they must sound simultaneously, making complex rhythms difficult to incorporate.
- Steady Meter: European music often employs a steady meter to organize pitch blending.
- Subordination: Rhythm is generally considered subordinate to harmony and melody in all European music, whether classical or traditional.

Greek Music: Byzantine Chant

Ancient Greek Culture (Foundation of Europe)
- Centered in Athens from approximately the $9^{th}$ to $4^{th}$ centuries BCE.
- Gave rise to philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, and familiar gods such as Zeus, Hercules, Hermes, and Athena (now mythological figures).
- Alexander the Great (March to March): A critical political and military figure whose empire spread from Macedonia through Western Asia and Egypt, conquering the Persian Empire and initiating the Hellenistic period. His legacy was a model for subsequent conquerors, notably the Romans.
Ottoman Influence and Greek Independence
- Ottoman Empire: Began conquering parts of Western Asia and Southeastern Europe in the 13^{th}} century.
- Constantinople: Conquered by the Ottomans in the 15^{th}} century, establishing dominion over most of the Balkans.
- Greek Independence: Greece declared independence in the $1820s$ but faced ongoing struggles with the Ottomans to expand its territory.
- Turkish-Arabic Influence: Pronounced in many aspects of regional culture (review Chapter $3$ case study).
- Modern Borders: Greece attained its modern national borders in $1947$ and was strategically important during World War II.
- Modern State: The country has experienced economic and political instability but remains a popular tourist destination.
Byzantine Chant: First Impressions and Aural Analysis
- Basic Musical Elements: A melodic chant performed over a continuous drone.
- Association: Often linked with monastic traditions, thus male choirs are most common.
- Liturgical Function: In many Orthodox churches, much of the liturgy is chanted, not merely spoken, to enhance efficacy and distinguish it from everyday speech.
- Modes (ekoi): These chants utilize modes that do not conform to the major/minor system of modern European music.
The Greek Orthodox Church
- Historical Center: Once centered in Byzantium (later Constantinople, now Istanbul).
- Great Schism: Unified with the Western Roman Catholic Church until $1054$ , when it split due to theological and political reasons.
- Characteristics: Strongly solidified ritual practices, considered very "sensual" by outsiders due to colorful iconography, incense, and prolific vocal music.
- Instrumental Music: Uncommon in Orthodox traditions, though it does occasionally occur.
Mount Athos: Ancient Orthodox Practices
- Monastic Republic: Off Northern Greece, considered to preserve some of the most ancient Orthodox religious practices.
- Ottoman Conquest: Thousands of monks retreated here, establishing an independent religious state.
- Age of Chants: Believed to date as early as the $5^{th}$ century, though manuscripts only date to the $9^{th}$ century.
- Influences: These ancient chants are thought to be influenced by pre-Christian traditions (e.g., Greek modes) as well as Jewish liturgical chant.

Spanish Music: Flamenco

Andalusia: Crossroads of Cultures
- Southernmost Spain: Most heavily impacted by Arabic cultural traditions.
- Moorish Stronghold: The last region where the Moors (Muslims) held power before being ousted in the $15^{th}$ century.
- Dominant Religion: Spain has been predominantly Roman Catholic since the $15^{th}$ century.
- Colonialism: Spain played a crucial role in early European colonialism, notably sponsoring Christopher Columbus and sending conquistadors and Roman Catholic missionaries to the Western Hemisphere, resulting in strong cultural connections.
- Modern Isolation: For much of its modern history, Spain has been politically and economically isolated from Western Europe, contributing to an "old world feel" often noted by visitors (e.g., seeing donkeys, bullfights).
- Ethnic Groups: Significant Gypsy communities, especially in Andalusia, and the Basques, known for strong regional cultural pride.
Flamenco: First Impressions and Aural Analysis
- Notable Elements: Musically, a prominent guitar and powerful voice. Also, encouraging audience calls (jaleo) and obvious foot stomping by accompanying dancers.
- Flamenco Guitar: Considered one of the most challenging performance styles in European music (folk or classical).
  - Many classical guitar techniques originated from this style.
  - Highly percussive, with performers slapping the instrument for emphasis (golpe).
  - The "five-finger flourish" is a common technique.
- The Vocalist (cantaor or cantaora): Often sings in the upper register, creating a distinctive "strained" timbre.
  - Incorporates extensive melisma, believed to be influenced by Arabic vocal practices.
- Rhythm: A vibrant feature, evident in dancers' foot stomping (zapateado) and interlocking hand claps (palmas) and finger snaps (pitos).
  - Common use of tempo and meter changes, which usually correspond to stark shifts in mood.
Duende: The Essence of Flamenco
- Passion: The core essence of flamenco music.
- Performance Success: While a strong voice is necessary, perfect pitch is not required for a successful cantaor or cantaora. Success relies on the emotional energy embedded in the singing.
- Vocal Cracking: A voice cracking during performance is seen as a sign that the singer is pushing to their emotional and physical limits, rather than a flaw.
Origins and Gypsy Influence
- Cante: The Unaccompanied Tradition: The singing style and lyrical content are believed to derive from cante, a particular unaccompanied solo vocal tradition originating in Andalusia.
- Gypsy Adaptation: The appeal of cante was initially limited, but it was adapted by incoming Gypsy populations who added an accompanying guitar and unique forms of dancing influenced by Arabic traditions encountered during their travels across North Africa.
- Roma (Romani) Connection: The Roma, mistakenly called Gypsies (believed to originate from Egypt), instead came from India. Their musical adaptability led to the creation of distinctive music that was familiar yet fresh to local populations.
- National Music: Flamenco was born from this adaptation and flourished as Gypsy communities became visible musicians in Spain, eventually being regarded as a national music.

Russian Music: Balalaika

Russian Geography and History
- Divisions: The area east of the Ural Mountains is considered Asia, while the area west is Europe. Most musical research focuses on the European part, with the Republic of Tuva (Asian part) being a significant exception in world music due to throat singing.
- Czars: Russia's history highlights great czars like Ivan the Terrible, Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, and Nicholas the Bloody.
- Russian Revolution (1917): Nicholas abdicated, leading to the communist period (1917-1991).
- Soviet Union (1922): Formed after the revolution, becoming a superpower and the main opponent to the US during the Cold War.
- Folk Music as Propaganda: During the Soviet era, the state promoted folk traditions as propaganda, and classical musicians were encouraged to use folk music for inspiration. This led to a distaste among many Russians for folk music associated with this period, who often consider art music more reflective of true Russian music.
- Vocal Emphasis: Much of Russia's folk music emphasizes vocal performance.
- Russian Orthodox Chant: Similar to Greek Orthodox chant, it has a prominent tradition, but unlike the archaic Greek sound, Russian chant was harmonized by $19^{th}$ century composers.
Balalaika: First Impressions and Aural Analysis
- Initial Impression: Often characterized as a "peppy tune" with the "chattering lutes" (balalaikas) and "plotting" string bass, and the harmonic addition of an accordion.
- Balalaika Description: A fretted, plucked lute with a triangular body, found in various sizes for different ranges. It's said to "chatter" rather than "sing" (singing is associated with the violin).
- Accordion: A bellows-driven free-reed aerophone common in many European folk traditions, known for playing both melody and harmony.
- Balalaika Orchestras: Typically perform folk dance tunes (e.g., the polka, which is common in Eastern Europe) but do not usually accompany actual dancing.
From Domra to Balalaika
- Domra: A small, rounded-body plucked lute that predates the balalaika.
- Czar Alexei I's Ban ( $17^{th}$ Century): Banned all folk music to suppress public criticism from skomorokhi (jesters/performers).
  - Entertainers abandoned their domras to avoid suspicion.
- Balalaika Creation: The balalaika was created as a replacement, its triangular body being quicker to construct than the rounded domra.
  - Despite the ban being short-lived, the balalaika gained popularity.
- Vasily Andreyev ("Father of the Balalaika"): A Russian noble who promoted the balalaika as a unique Russian cultural artifact, encouraging its development as a classical instrument (though it never truly achieved this status).
  - His balalaika orchestras became popular in Russia, Europe, and the US.
- Symbolism: Today, the balalaika symbolizes Russian musical identity and is often treated as an art object.

Scottish Music: Highland Pipes

Scotland's Political and Geographic Identity
- United Kingdom: Scotland remains part of the UK.
- Devolution (1999): Political process granting more local power to the UK's four regions (England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Scotland).
- Independence Movement: Scotland's parliament is moving towards full political independence.
- Highland vs. Lowland Culture: Western and northern Scotland are mountainous (Highlands), while major urban areas (Glasgow, Edinburgh) are in lowlands. Highland culture is often seen as the source of Scotland's unique identity.
- Tourist Attractions: Loch Ness Monster (Nessie) and St. Andrews (home of golf).
Highland Pipes: First Impressions and Aural Analysis
- Notable Features: A strident melodic line over a constant drone, often accompanied by percussion (snare and bass drums).
- Universal Bagpipe Features: All bagpipes share an airbag, one or more drone pipes, and a melodic pipe called a chanter.
- Highland Pipe Specifics:
  - Drones: Three drone pipes (two tenor, one bass), tuned an octave and two octaves below the chanter's primary pitch.
  - Reeds: Each drone pipe has a single reed; the chanter has a double reed. All sound when air pressure is applied.
  - Air Supply: Lung-driven, using a blowpipe, in contrast to bellows-driven pipes like the Irish Uilleann pipes.
- Pibroch: A musical form specific to Highland pipe performance, essentially a theme and variation composition. So common that Highland pipes are sometimes called pibroch pipes.
Cultural Significance and Military Association
- Cultural Icon: Central to Scottish musical and cultural identity; the kilted Scottish bagpiper is an international icon.
- Historical Role: Historically (though unproven), believed to have been developed by Highlanders for intimidating enemies and signaling in battle.
- Military Connection: Strongly associated with the Scottish military branch of the UK, thus often accompanied by snare and bass drums.
- Lone Piper: Performs in contexts like announcements, wedding processions, and funeral processions. Historically, they played at daybreak to awaken people.
- Global Presence: Commonly found in former British Empire colonies (Canada, US, India, Australia, South Africa), especially in US police and fire departments due to significant Scottish and Irish descendants.

Irish Music: Uilleann Pipes

Ireland's Landscape and History
- Emerald Isle: Ireland is known for its lush green grasslands.
- Celtic Heritage: Celtic-speaking peoples arrived in the British Isles around the 6^{th}} century BCE, and Celtic culture is strongly associated with Ireland today, having spread across much of Central and Western Europe over millennia.
- Christianity: Many Celts in Ireland and Wales adopted Christianity by the late 7^{th}} century; the Celtic Cross (with encompassing circle) dates to roughly the 8^{th}} century.
- Irish Potato Famine ( $19^{th}$ Century): A devastating period (mid- $19^{th}$ century) where $500,000$ to $1,000,000$ people died, and $2,000,000$ emigrated (many to the US). Irish were also forced to export food to England during this time.
- Two Countries:
  - Republic of Ireland (yellow on maps): Gained independence from Britain in $1922$ , having been a British colony since $1801$ .
  - Northern Ireland (green on maps): Remains part of the UK.
Uilleann Pipes: First Impressions and Aural Analysis
- Timbre: Mellow compared to the strident sound of Scottish pipes.
- Musical Elements: Features melody and drone like Scottish pipes, but uniquely includes chords and harmony that change during performance.
- Etymology:
  - Uilleann: The most common Irish term, meaning "elbow," referring to the use of the elbow to pump the bellows that fill the airbag.
  - Union: Fell out of fashion in the $19^{th}$ century but is sometimes used in the US; refers to the "union" of regulator pipes with other instrument components.
- Regulators: Three pipes with keys that, when pressed, alter their acoustic length, thus changing pitches and creating harmonies. Keys are arranged in rows for simultaneous playing.
- Bellows-Driven: Allows the musician to sing while playing the instrument.
- Volume: Does not produce the high volume of Highland pipes.
- Ensemble Context: Often found in ensembles with various instruments, including fiddle, button box, frame drum, guitar, tin whistle, hammered dulcimer, banjo, and even Celtic harp.
  - Such ensembles typically play indoors for dance events.
  - Pubs: A common venue, often with informal dancing areas and ad hoc "sessions" where musicians gather to play familiar tunes.
  - Ceili bands: Groups playing a variety of instruments (Uilleann pipes, bodhrán, button boxes, fiddles, flutes, spoons, etc.).
- Appalachian Music Connection: Ceili bands and their Scottish counterparts are seen as a source for Appalachian music traditions in the US.

Hungarian Music: Hurdy Gurdy and Roma Traditions

Hungary: Crossroads of East and West
- Danube River Valley: A central geographic feature, bisecting the country, and historically a host to numerous European and Asian invaders.
- Invasions and Dominance: Occupied by Mongols (13^{th}} century), Ottoman Turks (16^{th}} century), and influenced by European powers such as the Habsburgs, Nazis, and the Soviet Union.
- Unique Blend: Hungarian kings navigated these influences, largely aligning with Central European traditions, resulting in a unique blend of Western and Eastern European culture.
- Roma Minority: A large minority in Hungary, significantly influencing musical traditions throughout the country. Their performance style here differs from communities in Spain.
Hurdy Gurdy: First Impressions and Aural Analysis
- Hungarian Name: Tekkerőlant (also common in France).
- Initial Impression: Often mistaken for Scottish bagpipes due to melody over a single-pitched drone and similar timbre.
- Key Feature: The buzzed timbre used to articulate rhythm.
- Instrument Description: A chordophone that uses a rosin-covered wheel to vibrate the strings.
  - Crank: Performer turns a crank to spin the wheel and jerks it at different positions to create rhythmic accents.
  - Buzzing Drone String: Can be engaged to produce a distinct timbre.
  - Melody Production: Achieved by pressing keys, which are wooden tangents that touch melodic strings at various points to change pitch.
- Rhythm (parlando rubato): Many hurdy gurdy pieces use a fluctuating tempo, described as "speech rhythm."
Famous Hungarians and Ethnomusicology
- Franz Liszt and Bela Bartók: Two of Hungary's most famous musicians.
- Bela Bartók's Importance: Particularly significant for ethnomusicologists due to his travels throughout Southeastern Europe and Western Asia, transcribing traditional musical performances.
  - His research is considered among the earliest true ethnographic fieldwork in ethnomusicology.
  - Helped differentiate music established by the Romani from "true Hungarian Magyar folk songs."
Roma Music and the Cimbalom
- Roma Visibility: Widespread throughout Hungary, with significant presence in Budapest (capital city), where they frequently perform as musicians.
- Cimbalom: Hungary's national instrument, brought by Romani populations, and considered a descendant of the Iranian santur.
  - Complexity: More complex than the santur, featuring foot pedal-operated dampers (similar to a piano) and a much wider range.
  - Contexts: While most common in folk contexts, classical composers sometimes wrote pieces for the cimbalom, and it remains a subject of study in the Budapest music conservatory.

Georgian Music: Choral Traditions

Eastern European Choral Traditions: Particularly common in Russia, Georgia, and Bulgaria.
Georgia: Contested Territory and Resilient Culture
- History of Invasions: Located in a long-contested region, Georgia has been repeatedly invaded over its history, including by the Ottoman Turks and Russians.
- Soviet Era: Ended up as a republic in the former Soviet Union, seceded in $1991$ , and achieved shaky independence with the Rose Revolution in $2008$ .
- Distinctive Music: Despite centuries of invasions and occupations, Georgian music remains remarkably distinctive and contrasts sharply with what most understand as European music.
- Cultural Mix: A crossroads between Europe and Asia, the region blends Christian European and Muslim Asian cultures.
Georgian Choral Singing: First Impressions and Aural Analysis
- Impression: Exudes strength and determination, with unaccompanied male voices producing striking, often unsettling, harmonies distinct from Western Europe.
  - A yodel-esque upper voice contributes to its unique quality.
- Musical Elements (Aural Analysis):
  - Possesses melody and harmony but sounds strikingly different due to seemingly dissonant intervals (e.g., seconds and sevenths) and complex polymetric rhythms.
  - Improvisation: A tightly controlled improvisation allows different singing groups to render the same song in noticeably varied ways.
  - Performance Groups: Most vocal music is performed by small groups of singers (male or female, rarely mixed) without accompaniment.
  - Three Vocal Ranges/Parts:
    - tsq'oli (Middle Part): The main melody, often performed by a soloist.
    - mok'veuli (Upper Voice Follower): Often parallels the main voice, performed by a soloist.
    - bani (Bass Voice): Typically the most active of the three parts, performed by a small group.
  - Krimanchuli (Extra High Part): Features yodels, characterizing the style.
  - Rhythmic Flavor: The incongruity of melodic phrasing between parts and strong syncopation provide a hearty rhythmic flavor, requiring careful listening to individual parts.
- Example Track (makruli): A wedding song performed by two antiphonal groups (totaling about $20$ singers).
  - Begins with a slower section and then transitions into a dance song, though it does not accompany actual dancing.
Cultural Contexts of Georgian Music
- Resilience: Despite being part of the Soviet Union (1921-1991), Georgian music has remained close to its roots.
- Amateur Music-Making: Few musicians identify as professional, so most music is amateur and open to everyone, as all are assumed to have enough musical talent to participate.
- Important Song Contexts:
  - Calendric Rituals: Related to annual cycles of festivals and holidays.
  - Life Cycle Rituals: Associated with events like birth, weddings, and funerals.
  - Religious Music: Of the Georgian Orthodox Church.
- Informal Settings: Commonly sung informally around a large dinner table after meals by family or friends.
- International Recognition: The distinctive style and energy of Georgian singing and dance have appeal, leading the government to send groups for international tours and to entertain tourists at home.
- Under the Radar: Nonetheless, Georgian music largely remains outside the spotlight of most international audiences.