Public Speaking Final
Questions on Final:
When you see an MCQ that we saw before, do not presume the answer is the same, he probably changed the words somehow
15 MCQ
10 fill in the blanks
Short answer
8/29 & On
Body Language Tips:
Body Control: Maintain stillness in your posture and stand with feet shoulder-width apart.
Eye Contact: Engage with the audience by making direct eye contact for 5-7 seconds, ensuring that your gaze shifts naturally during your speech.
Facial Expression: Your expressions should align with the tone of your message.
Vocal Delivery: Speak clearly, adjusting volume, pace, and pitch. Use pauses for emphasis and engage with your audience vocally.
Gestures: Keep hands open, avoid minimal or stiff gestures, and use them to emphasize key points.
Organizing a Speech:
General Purpose: Inform, entertain, persuade, or motivate the audience.
Audience Analysis: Demographic (age, gender, education) and situational factors (cultural or regional influences) should shape your speech delivery.
Speech Preparation: Follow the 8 steps, from selecting a topic to rehearsing and refining your speech.
Speech Organization: Use chronological, problem-solution, or thematic structures. Complex structures like narrative or STAR (Situation, Task, Action, Result) methods can also be effective for storytelling.
Simple and Complex Speech Structures:
Simple: Use chronological order, cause, and effect, or problem-solution.
Complex: Explore structures like narrative storytelling, problem-solution-impact, or thematic organization.
Impromptu Speaking:
Tips: Structure your impromptu speech with an introduction (hook, topic, credibility), clear content (organized in body and conclusion), and effective signposting (transitions, summaries).
Signposting:
Purpose: It helps the audience follow the structure of your speech by signaling transitions between sections.
Types: Transition phrases (e.g., “Next, let’s explore…”), internal previews (what you will cover), internal summaries (recap points), and concluding signals (e.g., “To wrap up…”).
10/30 & On
Parts of an Introduction
Attention Getter: A hook that grabs the audience’s attention (quote, question, anecdote, startling fact).
Thesis Statement: The main idea or argument you’ll present.
Preview of Main Points: Briefly outline the structure of the speech.
Establish Credibility: Explain why you are qualified to speak on the topic.
Relevance to the Audience: Explain how the topic matters to the listeners.
What to Avoid in Intros and Conclusions
Avoid:
Too Much Detail: Keep it concise; don’t overwhelm your audience with information at the beginning.
Starting with Apologies: Avoid opening by apologizing for any perceived shortcomings.
Cliché Openers: Avoid overused or generic hooks that fail to engage.
Too Complex Language: Use simple language; make sure your audience understands.
Conclusion:
Avoid Introducing New Ideas: The conclusion should summarize, not introduce fresh points.
Avoid Rambling: Be succinct and clear in closing your argument.
Avoid Weak Closures: Don’t leave the audience with an uncertain or unsatisfying ending.
John Stuart Mill's Canons of Causation
These canons are used to analyze and establish cause-effect relationships:
A cause YIELDS an effect: If an effect is present, a cause must have initiated it. For example, if a new policy increases voter turnout, the policy is likely the cause.
No cause yields NO effect: Without a cause, an effect does not occur. If there's no change in voting turnout, it suggests that no factor caused it.
A large amount of cause will yield a large amount of effect: The more substantial the cause, the more noticeable the effect. For instance, a major change in voting laws may have a larger impact on turnout than a minor one.
A small amount of cause yields a small amount of effect: A small cause results in a small effect, like a slight tweak in an electoral process that only marginally affects turnout.
Ontic, Perceptual, and Linguistic
Ontic: This refers to what is physically real and factual, the objective reality of a situation.
Perceptual: Your subjective interpretation or individual view of what’s happening. This differs between people because perception is shaped by experiences and biases.
Linguistic: The challenge of translating our perceptions and objective facts into words. It’s about how we communicate what’s real and what we perceive to others (almost all of what we learn and experience is going to be linguistic - through words).
Definition of Communication
Communication is the co-creation of social reality: Communication is not just about sharing information; it’s about creating shared understanding and meaning with others. This is reflected in the fact that over 125 definitions of communication exist because it encompasses different facets, from conveying facts to building relationships.
First Country Created Through Language
USA: The United States is often cited as a country that came into being primarily through the use of language, such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, which are foundational texts that unified the colonies under a common set of principles.
Albert Mehrabian’s Communication Research
Mehrabian’s research shows the relative importance of different components of communication:
Verbal: 7% – The words we use.
Vocal: 38% – How we say those words (tone, pitch, and pace).
Non-verbal: 55% – Our body language, facial expressions, and other non-verbal cues.
Raybird Whistell’s View on Face-to-Face Communication
⅓ Verbal, ⅓ Vocal, ⅓ Non-verbal: When speaking face-to-face, communication is divided equally between what we say, how we say it, and the non-verbal cues that accompany the message.
Nonverbal Communication
Non-verbal communication involves managing how you convey messages without words, through body language, gestures, facial expressions, posture, etc. It plays a crucial role in communication, often conveying more than the actual words used.
Connectives in Public Speaking
Transitions: Words or phrases that guide the audience from one point to the next. Example: “Now that we’ve discussed this, let’s move to the next point…”
Signposting: Using numbers or phrases to indicate where the speech is headed. Example: “There are three main reasons why…”
Internal Preview: A brief statement previewing what’s to come. Example: “We’re about to discuss three major factors that contribute to voting access.”
Internal Review: A brief recap of what was just discussed, helping the audience follow along. Example: “We’ve talked about voter registration; next, we’ll look at polling locations.”
Mill's Canons of Causation in Public Speaking
Method of Agreement: If multiple events share a common factor, this could be the cause. For example, if various successful initiatives to increase voting turnout shared a certain policy change, this could point to that policy as the cause.
Method of Difference: If something happens when a factor is present but not when it’s absent, it might be the cause. For instance, if turnout increases in states with easier voter registration but not in states without, registration ease might be the cause.
Joint Method of Agreement and Difference: Combines the first two methods to strengthen arguments. For example, comparing successful initiatives (method of agreement) and contrasting them with unsuccessful ones (method of difference) will help identify the cause.
Method of Residues: After eliminating known causes, the remaining factor is likely the true cause. If we know that all factors except one are controlled, we can infer that the remaining factor is the cause of the effect.
Method of Concomitant Variations: If one factor changes consistently with another, there may be a causal relationship. For example, increased voting accessibility (cause) may lead to increased voter turnout (effect).
Ivy Lee’s Time Management Speech: Done for Charles Shwabb, the Bethlehem Steel company
1. Prioritize Tasks
Lee advised that, at the end of each day, you should write down six important tasks to accomplish the next day. These should be the most critical and urgent tasks that will have the most significant impact on your day or your goals. The key is to focus on the most important things first and not get distracted by less important tasks.
2. Order Tasks by Importance
Once you have your list of six tasks, you should rank them in order of importance. This ensures that you tackle the most crucial tasks first and ensure they are completed. It prevents the common trap of starting with easier or less important tasks, which can delay the more impactful ones.
3. Work on One Task at a Time
Lee’s method encourages the focus of your attention on just one task at a time. Trying to multitask can lead to mistakes and less productivity. By dedicating yourself to completing one task before moving on to the next, you give each task the attention it deserves and ensure it gets done effectively.
4. End the Day with Reflection
At the end of the day, Lee suggested reviewing your list. Look at what you accomplished and carry over any unfinished tasks to the next day's list. This reflection helps you keep track of progress and understand where you may need to adjust your priorities for the following day.
Final Exam Review:
John Stuart Mill's Canons of Causation
A cause yields an effect
C → E, E → C
If a cause is present, an effect must be present.
If an effect is present, a cause must have preceded it.
No cause yields no effect
C ≠ E, E ≠ C
A large amount of cause yields a large amount of effect
C > → E >
A small amount of cause yields a small amount of effect
C < → E <
3 Types of Reality
Ontic reality – That which happens.
Perceptual reality – Our individual view of that which actually happens.
Linguistic reality – The task of translating into words what happens and our perception of it to construct reality.
Communication
Co-creation of societal reality.
Dance & Larson's article finds 126 different definitions of communication.
Nothing stable about communication.
We either think in words or pictures.
Albert Mehrabian
The meaning of communication between two parties:
7% verbal (what you say),
38% vocal (how you say it),
55% non-verbal (body language, facial expressions).
Ray Birdwhistell
Claims that 1/3 of communication is verbal, 1/3 is vocal, and 1/3 is nonverbal.
Connectives
Transitions: Two-part sentences signaling a shift (e.g., "Now that we've discussed X, let's move to Y").
Signposting: Use of numbers to guide the audience (e.g., 1, 2, 3).
Internal review: Recap of the point you’ve just made.
Internal preview: Brief description of what you'll cover next.
Shannon & Weaver: Mathematical Model of Communication
Introduced the concept of a message, response, and noise in communication.
Noise: Internal or external (e.g., hunger, anger).
Tips for Speaking
Negative vocal qualities: Use strategic pauses to slow down your speaking.
Percentage of time spent communicating:
16% Reading
35% Speaking
45% Listening
9% Writing
Midterm Review
Sensory Limitations
Different perceptions due to gender:
Men: Business triangle (face region).
Women: Social triangle (larger range, better peripheral vision).
Body Control
Stance: Maintain a stable position.
Eye contact: Engage with the audience before speaking.
Facial expression: Adjust according to the topic.
Vocal characteristics: Release energy through voice.
Gestures: Gestures outside the elbows in controlled audiences.
Minimization
Posture: Lock your feet in place when standing in front of an audience.
Eye contact: Maintain eye contact with the far side of the room.
Facial expression: Keep it appropriate to the topic.
Maximization (Add Energy)
Vocal Characteristics:
Volume: Fill the room with your voice.
Pace: Slow down for dramatic effect.
Articulation: Speak clearly.
Variance: Change speed, volume, and pitch to keep attention.
Pauses: The most powerful tool in a speech.
Pitch: Men lower their voices when excited; avoid higher pitch (loses credibility).
Silence: Use strategically to emphasize a point.
Gestures
Gesture to the outside elbows when addressing a small audience.
Use karate chop gestures and two home bases for your hands (one over your naval and the other above it).
Purpose of Speaking
To inform
To entertain
To persuade
To motivate
Motivating and Persuading
Persuade: Shaping or modifying thoughts or beliefs.
Motivate: Influencing behavior/actions.
Factors Influencing Speech Speed
Location: Coastal areas tend to speak faster.
Population density: Faster speech in densely populated areas (e.g., New York).
Audience Analysis
Demographics: Age, gender, etc.
Situational Analysis: Context, environment, etc.
Evidence and Organization
8 Forms of Evidence:
Examples: Stories or anecdotes.
Definitions:
Denotative (dictionary definition).
Operational (how something works).
Analogies: Literal or figurative comparisons.
Statistics: Reputable sources and accurate interpretation.
Testimony: Expert or layperson opinions.
Scientific Study Results: Include author, sample size, and data.
Organizational Styles
Simple:
Chronological
Topical
Spatial
Cause and Effect
Problem and Solution
Complex:
Ascending or descending order
Cost-benefit analysis
Indirect sequence
Elimination order
Open proposal
Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
Connectives
Transition: Moving from one point to another.
Signposting: Using numbers to guide (e.g., 1, 2, 3).
Internal Summary: Recap of the previous point.
Internal Preview: Preview of the next point.
Abraham Lincoln on Persuasion
Persuasion: Changing or reinforcing attitudes, beliefs, or values.
Attitude: Easier to change, based on how we respond to something.
Belief: Harder to change, based on past experiences, evidence, or faith.
Value: Enduring conceptions of right/wrong, good/bad.
Ethos, Pathos, Logos
Ethos: Credibility of the speaker.
Pathos: Emotional appeal.
Logos: Logical argumentation.
Enhancing Credibility
Competence: Demonstrated ability.
Trustworthiness: Honesty and sincerity.
Dynamism: Energy and charisma.
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
The more you think about the message, the more likely you are to agree with it.
Pathological Argument
Emotional arguments where logic should prevail or vice versa.
7 Habits of Highly Effective People
Character: Principles and values.
Personality: Wavering need for short-term achievements.
Motivation
Cognitive Dissonance: Mental discomfort from conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values.
Use this in speeches to create discomfort and call for change.
Hierarchy of Needs:
Physiological
Safety
Social
Self-esteem
Self-actualization
Positive Motivation: Suggest good things will happen if your advice is followed.
Negative Motivation: Fear appeal (if-then statements).
Developing a Persuasive Speech
Choose a relevant topic.
Ensure passion for the topic.
Determine your persuasive purpose:
Proposition of Fact: True or false.
The Proposition of Value: Judging worth or importance.
Proposition of Policy: Advocates a specific action which requires changing a policy
Essential Idea: What the speaker hopes to accomplish in the speech
Proposition: is a statement you want your audience to agree with