Constitutional Monarchy in England

In 17th-century England, the struggle between the king and Parliament led to the foundation of a constitutional monarchy.
The Stuart line began with James I (1603-1625), who believed in the divine right of kings, leading to conflict with Parliament.
Parliament controlled finances and had religious disagreements with James I, as he refused to replace the Anglican Church's structure with a Presbyterian model favored by Puritans.

Charles I (1625-1649) continued the conflict with Parliament.
In 1628, Parliament passed the Petition of Right, limiting the king's power to tax and imprison without consent; Charles initially accepted but later ignored it.
From 1629 to 1640, Charles ruled without Parliament, raising funds through measures like ship money, which caused opposition.
Charles's religious policies, including his marriage to a Catholic and attempts to introduce rituals into the Anglican Church, heightened Puritan grievances.
The Long Parliament (1640-1660) imposed restrictions on royal authority, including abolishing arbitrary courts and enacting the Triennial Act.

The English Civil War (1642-1646) resulted in Parliament's victory, aided by the New Model Army led by Oliver Cromwell.
Cromwell and the army purged Parliament, leading to the execution of Charles I in 1649.

Following the king's execution, England was declared a republic or commonwealth (1649-1653).
Cromwell faced uprisings and opposition, including from the Levellers, who advocated for democratic reforms.
He dissolved the Rump Parliament and established the Instrument of Government, but ultimately resorted to military rule.
After Cromwell's death in 1658, the monarchy was restored with Charles II.

Charles II (1660-1685) returned to England, but Parliament retained significant power.
Religious issues persisted, with laws against Catholics and Puritan Dissenters.
The Test Act of 1673 specified that only Anglicans could hold office.
The emergence of the Whigs and Tories marked political divisions over the succession of James II, a Catholic.
James II (1685-1688) pursued Catholic interests, leading to increased conflict with Parliament.

William of Orange and Mary were invited to invade England, leading to the Glorious Revolution and their confirmation as monarchs.
The Bill of Rights in 1689 established Parliament's rights and laid the foundation for a constitutional monarchy.
The Toleration Act of 1689 granted religious freedom to Puritan Dissenters, but not Catholics.

Thomas Hobbes advocated for absolute authority in his book Leviathan, arguing that life without government is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
John Locke, in Two Treatises of Government, argued for natural rights and the right to form a new government if the existing one fails to protect those rights.
Locke's ideas influenced movements for constitutional government and protection of rights.